Coupled conditional nonlinear optimal perturbations and their application to ENSO ensemble forecasts.

Limitations are existed in current ensemble forecasting initial perturbation methods for describing the interactions among various spheres of the Earth system. In this study, a new method is proposed, namely, the coupled conditional nonlinear optimal perturbation (C-CNOP) method, which incorporates multisphere interactions much appropriately. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a typical ocean-atmosphere "coupling" (or "interaction") phenomenon. The C-CNOP method is applied to ensemble forecasting of ENSO. It is demonstrated that the C-CNOP method can generate coupled initial perturbations (CPs) that appropriately consider initial ocean-atmosphere coupling uncertainty for ENSO ensemble forecasts. Results reveal that the CPs effectively improve the ability of ENSO ensemble-mean forecasts in both temporal variability of Niño3.4 sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTAs) and spatial variability of ENSO mature-phase SSTAs. Notably, despite the weakest ocean-atmosphere coupling strength in the tropical Pacific occurring during the boreal spring and summer, CPs still capture the uncertainties of this weak coupling when ENSO predictions are initialized at these seasons. This performance of CPs significantly suppresses the rapid increase of ENSO prediction errors due to the high ocean-atmosphere coupling instability during these seasons, and thus effectively extends the lead time of skillful ENSO forecasting. Hence, the C-CNOP method is a suitable initial perturbation approach for ENSO ensemble forecast that can describe initial ocean-atmosphere coupling uncertainty. It is expected that the C-CNOP method plays a significant role in predictions of other high-impact climate phenomena, and even future Earth system predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]