Automated actual evapotranspiration estimation: Hybrid model of a novel attention based U-Net and metaheuristic optimization algorithms.

Actual evapotranspiration (ET a) plays a crucial role in the water and energy cycles of the earth. An accurate estimate of the ET a is essential for management of the water resources, agriculture, and irrigation, as well as research on atmospheric variations. Despite the importance of accurate ET a values, estimating and mapping them remains challenging due to the physical and biological complexity of the ET process. As a novel approach for rapid and reliable estimation of ET a , the present study develops automated deep learning (AutoDL) models that incorporate a metaheuristic optimization algorithm for image processing, architectural design, and hyperparameter tuning. The proposed AutoDL models integrate three different spatial and channel attention mechanisms, including a novel activated spatial attention mechanism (ASPAM), with the U-Net architecture. Bypassing the need for meteorological inputs, the proposed framework uses Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) products and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data as inputs. To evaluate the performance of the models, they are applied to three study areas in the United States with various climatic characteristics. According to the results, during the spring and summer, when the target values have higher certainty, the estimations are highly promising, with R2 as high as 0.91 and MAPE as low as 6.40%. Furthermore, the proposed ASPAM module improves the accuracy of ET a estimations compared to attention gate (AG) and squeeze and excitation (SE) attention modules. The results also indicate that the MODIS raw products and derived vegetation and water indices can predict ET a within a reliable range of accuracy, with the addition of DEM data marginally enhancing the models' performance. The automatic workflow of this model makes it significantly easy to use, contributing to its applicability and generalizability for enhancing atmospheric research. • A novel attention-based (ASPAM-) U-Net developed for actual evapotranspiration estimation. • Use of a single optical and thermal band dataset, eliminating the need for weather data inputs. • A comparative analysis of attention gate, squeeze and excitation, and ASPAM mechanisms. • Process automation, including optimal DL hyperparameters and architecture selection utilizing Harris Hawks Optimization. • Monthly evaluation of three U.S. regions with different hydroclimatological regimes over a 12-months period. • Evaluation of the impact of various inputs on model performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]