Investigating the energy trade networks in the Belt and Road regions: Structures and evolution.

The "Belt and Road" Initiative (BRI) is a new platform for international economic cooperation with far-reaching implications for restructuring the global energy trading system. This paper constructs the BRI energy trade networks and investigates the evolution of hierarchical structures, core–periphery, and backbone structures of the BRI energy trade networks at long time scales by integrating a flexible methodological framework. The results show that: (1) The BRI energy trade has formed closely linked, complex, and uneven energy trade networks, with spatially variable trade volume and noticeable hierarchical structural features. (2) China, Russia, India, the United Arab Emirates, and Saudi Arabia are the top five countries with the highest centrality degrees, while the rankings of other countries have varied. (3) The BRI energy trade networks exhibit significant core–periphery structures and some nodal countries are in the absolute cores of the network. (4) Backbone structures of the BRI energy trade networks continue to grow in both numbers and weights, forming backbone networks between major energy-exporting countries and major energy-demanding countries. Therefore, the BRI should strengthen the policy implementation and institutional arrangements at different levels to promote the BRI energy trade system, ensure global energy security, and strengthen energy interconnectivity. • The BRI energy trade networks are constructed considering the stratified heterogeneity of different energy modalities • A flexible methodological framework is established to comprehensively investigate the BRI energy trade networks • The hierarchical, core–periphery, and backbone structures of the BRI energy trade networks are identified • The energy cooperation and development strategies for the energy security of the BRI countries are proposed [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]