Applying High-Resolution Satellite and UAS Imagery for Detecting Coldwater Inputs in Temperate Streams of the Iowa Driftless Region.

Coldwater streams are crucial habitats for many biota including Salmonidae and Cottidae species that are unable to tolerate warmer water temperatures. Accurate classification of coldwater streams is essential for their conservation, restoration, and management, especially in light of increasing human disturbance and climate change. Coldwater streams receive cooler groundwater inputs and, as a result, typically remain ice-free during the winter. Based on this empirical thermal evidence, we examined the potential of very high-resolution (VHR) satellite and uncrewed aerial system (UAS) imagery to (i) detect coldwater streams using semi-automatic classification versus visual interpretation approaches, (ii) examine the physical factors that contribute to inaccuracies in detecting coldwater habitats, and (iii) use the results to identify inaccuracies in existing thermal stream classification datasets and recommend coverage updates. Due to complex site conditions, semi-automated classification was time consuming and produced low mapping accuracy, while visual interpretation produced better results. VHR imagery detected only the highest quality coldwater streams while lower quality streams that still met the thermal and biological criteria to be classified as coldwater remained undetected. Complex stream and site variables (narrow stream width, canopy cover, terrain shadow, stream covered by ice and drifting snow), image quality (spatial resolution, solar elevation angle), and environmental conditions (ambient temperature prior to image acquisition) make coldwater detection challenging; however, UAS imagery is uniquely suited for mapping very narrow streams and can bridge the gap between field data and satellite imagery. Field-collected water temperatures and stream habitat and fish community inventories may be necessary to overcome these challenges and allow validation of remote sensing results. We detected >30 km of coldwater streams that are currently misclassified as warmwater. Overall, visual interpretation of VHR imagery it is a relatively quick and inexpensive approach to detect the location and extent of coldwater stream resources and could be used to develop field monitoring programs to confirm location and extent of coldwater aquatic resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]