Ancient and modern mitogenomes of red deer reveal its evolutionary history in northern China.

Red deer (Cervus elaphus/hanglu/canadensis) are a group of closely-related species that survived through the Last Glacial period in Eurasia and expanded into North America. The evolutionary modes of red deer in Europe through glacial and interglacial cycles have been established relatively well based on both modern and ancient genomes, while the evolutionary and migratory history of red deer in Asia are not so clear. Northern China, as the southern border of their current distribution, is a significant area for exploring the evolution of wapitoids (Cervus canadensis). Here, we constructed six mitochondrial genomes (lengths of 13,282–16,306 bp) from Late Pleistocene fossil cervid materials in Northeastern China, and four modern complete mitochondrial DNA sequences (16,798–16943 bp) from Northern China. Phylogenetic analyses suggest four clades in wapitoids, with our new individuals clustered into three out of the four clades. BEAST analysis indicates that the divergence between elaphoids (including Cervus elaphus and Cervus hanglu) and the complex of 'wapitoids + sika deer (Cervus nippon)' occurred at approximately 1.37 million years ago (Ma, 95%Cl: 1.64–1.15 Ma). Bayesian skyline plots (BSPs) show that the effective maternal population size of wapitoids had a slight and stable expansion between Marine isotope stages (MIS) 7–3, and then shrank from the beginning of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Combined with the divergence dates, population dynamics, and fossil findings in Northern China, we infer that after wapitoids migrated eastward from Central Asia to Northeastern Asia, they had multiple migrations southward into Northern China. The current distribution of wapitoids in Northern China was likely shaped by these migrations as well as habitat fragmentation. Meanwhile, the radiocarbon dates of ancient individuals indicate that the Northeast China Plain, located at the same latitude as European refugia, may have provided a refugium for megafaunal species such as red deer to survive the LGM. • First combined sampling of both ancient and extant mitogenomes of wapitoids in China. • Demonstrating habitat fragmentation or multiple migratory events of wapitoids in Northern China. • Indicating a possible refuge for megafauna species in Northeastern China in LGM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]