Modeling curvature-resisting material surfaces with isogeometric analysis.

Improved understanding of solid surface energy and its role in the overall mechanical properties is of great interest due to the emerging manufacturing techniques of nanostructures, coatings, and synthetic/biological bilayer–polymer hybrids. Continuum numerical modeling of surface stresses efficiently incorporates a zero-thickness membrane bonded to a bulk, intrinsically accounting for surface tension and surface elasticity. Compressive surface stresses are not possible in a purely membrane formulation, ignoring the surface flexural resistance. The extension of material surfaces to account for flexural resistance, i.e., the Steigmann–Ogden model, requires spatial derivatives of second order, posing significant challenges to standard discretization techniques. Hence, the effect of surface curvature resistance on the overall mechanical behavior of complex geometries remains elusive. Here, we develop a three-dimensional computational formulation of curvature-dependent surface energetics at finite strains using surface-enriched isogeometric analysis. Coupled with a hyperelastic bulk, bending-resistance of material surfaces furnishes a new physical length scale, i.e., the elastobending length. We quantify the effect of elastobending deformations for several numerical examples involving soft materials with thin coatings and liquid-shell surfaces, capturing budding-like behavior observed at cell membranes. Our results demonstrate a stiffer overall mechanical behavior when material surfaces resist bending deformations and illustrate how curvature effects lead to complex budding deformations at non-zero initial curvature states. The proposed methodology provides a robust computational foundation to help improve our understanding and mechanical characterization of soft solids, nanostructures, and biological membranes at small scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]