Phthalate esters in marine ecosystems: Analytical methods, occurrence and distribution.

Phthalate esters are high production volume chemicals and are widely used as additives in the plastics industry. Since they are not chemically bound to the plastics, they can easily leach into the environment. They can also be transformed into phthalate monoesters via degradation or metabolization. As numerous studies have reported the negative effects of phthalate diesters and monoesters on marine biota, these contaminants are an emerging concern. In this article we review the most important analytical methods for determining phthalate esters in seawater, marine sediments and biota. The QuEChERS method and ultrasound-assisted extraction are the most common techniques for extracting solid samples, while solid-phase extraction is the most common technique for seawater samples. We also describe the occurrence and distribution of phthalate esters in the marine environment. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, di-n-butyl phthalate and diisobutyl phthalate, as well as their metabolites, are the main compounds detected in the reviewed matrices. • Methods for determining phthalates in seawater, sediments and biota are reviewed. • GC and LC are the most applied techniques for PAE and MPE separation, respectively. • Extraction and clean-up techniques for liquid and solid marine samples are compared. • The presence of PAEs and MPEs in seawater, sediment and biota samples is discussed. • Little information about MPEs in seawater and sediment samples is available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]