The impact of bioretention column internal water storage underdrain height on denitrification under continuous and transient flow.

• Nitrate removal was positively linearly related to hydraulic residence time • Raised underdrains created immobile zones but enhanced mixing during flow events • Dual isotopes in nitrate distinguished dentification for mobile zones for all columns • The bottom underdrain performed best in nitrogen removal for all tested conditions • Multiple decision criteria such as nitrate and DOC may influence underdrain height Internal water storage (IWS), a below-grade saturated layer, is a bioretention design component created by adjusting the underdrain outlet elevation. Anaerobic conditions and the presence of a carbon source in IWS facilitates denitrification. Yet it remains unclear how underdrain height within the IWS impacts nitrate (NO 3 −) removal. This study applied synthetic stormwater with NO 3 − to three laboratory columns with underdrains located at the bottom, middle, or top of a 32 cm thick gravel-woodchip IWS. Under steady state conditions, underdrain nitrogen removal demonstrated a positive linear relationship with increasing hydraulic residence time (HRT). For a 1 cm/h hydraulic loading rate (HLR), nitrogen removal efficiency increased from 52 to 99% as underdrain height moved from the top to the bottom. Despite identical IWS thickness across columns, immobilize zones below the middle and top underdrains limited the steady state nitrogen removal. Dual isotopes in NO 3 − also indicated denitrification occurred in mobile zones and showed little or no denitrification in immobile zones due to limited mass transport. Transient flow conditions were applied, to mimic storms, followed by dry conditions. Lower effluent nitrogen concentrations and mass fluxes were observed from the bottom underdrain across the range of HLRs tested (1 to 5 cm/h) but performance of all three underdrains converged after the application of one pore volume. The top underdrain enhanced mixing between new incoming low-DOC stormwater and old IWS water with high-DOC which minimized effluent DOC concentrations. NO 3 − isotope enrichment factors indicated denitrification during transient flow for all three underdrain heights and enrichment increased for the 5 cm/h HLR. For sites with narrow IWS geometries (width to depth ratio < 1), optimal underdrain height is likely located between the bottom and top of the IWS to promote mixing with old IWS water high in DOC and sustain denitrification during storms. Graphical Abstract [Display omitted]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]