role of impacts on the atmospheres on the moons of outer giants.

We investigate the comparative effect of impacts by trans-Neptunian Objects on the atmospheres of the moons Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, and Titan. We derive an analytic prescription for the 'stalling mass' (i.e. the atmosphere mass at which equilibrium between erosion and volatile delivery occurs), which is tested against a numerical model, demonstrating that the behaviour of the atmosphere matches the analytic prediction, albeit with stochastic events causing orders of magnitude variability. We find that bombardment, neglecting other effects, predicts atmosphere erosion on Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa leading to masses in quantitative agreement with the observed atmospheres. The predicted masses are relatively insensitive to the impactor size and velocity distributions, but sensitive to impactor density and volatile content. Crucially, we find that in this model the frequent arrival of 1–20 km-sized objects sets the quiescent atmosphere masses of the different moons, with atmospheres returning to these levels on ∼100 Myr time-scales at current bombardment levels, and larger impactors causing stochastic excursions to larger atmosphere masses. This quiescent level is higher on Titan than the Jovian moons due to the typically slower impact velocities, but to recreate Titan's massive current atmosphere an additional volatiles contribution is needed, which may be provided by impact-triggered outgassing. If so, the predicted mass is then dependent on the outgassing efficiency and the volatile mass contained in the crust, both of which are uncertain. This work highlights the role that impacts may have played in shaping the atmosphere evolution of outer Solar system moons, and the importance of stochastic effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]