The Chemical Ecology of Elephants: 21st Century Additions to Our Understanding and Future Outlooks.

Simple Summary: Among all taxa, messages transmitted via chemical signals are the oldest and most universal. For Asian and African elephants, odors convey information between individuals, and between elephants and their environment. Pheromones are chemical signals used within a species and while thousands of pheromones have been identified for insects, only a few dozen have been elucidated in mammals and other vertebrates. Amazingly, two pheromones are known for Asian elephants: one signals receptivity in females and the other a heightened reproductive state in males. The elephant trunk serves numerous functions including detecting airborne odors and transporting chemicals in substrates such as urine to be detected by multiple sensory systems. Obvious trunk behaviors provide clear means to assess the interest of elephants in scent sources. Thus, elephants can serve as a model system for investigating chemical signaling. Prior to the 21st century, research on elephant chemical signaling focused on within species communication. In the 21st century, these studies expanded with increasing fieldwork. Studies also revealed the use of odors to detect threats and forage for food. Chemical signaling in elephants remains a bouquet for further exploration with promising applications for the conservation of wild elephants and the management of elephants in human care. Chemical signals are the oldest and most ubiquitous means of mediating intra- and interspecific interactions. The three extant species of elephants, the Asian elephant and the two African species, savanna and forest share sociobiological patterns in which chemical signals play a vital role. Elephants emit secretions and excretions and display behaviors that reveal the importance of odors in their interactions. In this review, we begin with a brief introduction of research in elephant chemical ecology leading up to the 21st century, and then we summarize the body of work that has built upon it and occurred in the last c. 20 years. The 21st century has expanded our understanding on elephant chemical ecology, revealing their use of odors to detect potential threats and make dietary choices. Furthermore, complementary in situ and ex situ studies have allowed the careful observations of captive elephants to be extended to fieldwork involving their wild counterparts. While important advances have been made in the 21st century, further work should investigate the roles of chemical signaling in elephants and how these signals interact with other sensory modalities. All three elephant species are threatened with extinction, and we suggest that chemical ecology can be applied for targeted conservation efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]