2500 years of charcoal production in the Low Countries: The chronology and typology of charcoal kilns and their relation with early iron production.

The study of archaeological remains of charcoal kilns is a fast growing field of research. The history and evolution of different types of (pre)historical charcoal production features is still poorly understood however. Based on a large number of radiocarbon dated charcoal kilns from Belgium and the Netherlands, covering c. 2500 years, a typology and chronology of charcoal kilns is presented. The oldest charcoal production features date to the late Iron Age, though many of these dates seem to suffer from an old-wood effect and might actually date to the Early Roman period. Both Iron Age and Roman period charcoal production is done in rectangular pit kilns. During the Early Middle Ages, there is a shift to circular pit kilns which become the dominant kiln type during the High Middle Ages. From c.1300 CE onwards, charcoal is no longer produced in pit kilns, but a new kiln type, i.e. the mound kiln is used. The size of the charcoal (pit) kilns decreases from the Roman period till c. 1300 CE when, with the use of mound kilns the volume of produced charcoal dramatically increases. These changes in kiln size most likely reflect changes in both the organisation, scale and technology of iron production in the Low Countries. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]