Pulsed Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Imaging: Applications in the Studies of Tumor Physiology.

<bold><italic>Significance:</italic></bold> Electron paramagnetic resonance imaging (EPRI) is capable of generating images of tissue oxygenation using exogenous paramagnetic probes such as trityl radicals or nitroxyl radicals. The spatial distribution of the paramagnetic probe can be generated using magnetic field gradients as in magnetic resonance imaging and, from its spectral features, spatial maps of oxygen can be obtained from live objects. In this review, two methods of signal acquisition and image formation/reconstruction are described. The probes used and its application to study tumor physiology and monitor treatment response with chemotherapy drugs in mouse models of human cancer are summarized. <bold><italic>Recent Advances:</italic></bold> By implementing phase encoding/Fourier reconstruction in EPRI in time domain mode, the frequency contribution to the spatial resolution was avoided and images with improved spatial resolution were obtained. The EPRI-generated pO2 maps in tumor were useful to detect and evaluate the effects of various antitumor therapies on tumor physiology. Coregistration with other imaging modalities provided a better understanding of hypoxia-related alteration in physiology. <bold><italic>Critical Issues:</italic></bold> The high radiofrequency (RF) power of EPR irradiation and toxicity profile of radical probes are the main obstacles for clinical application. The improvement of RF low power pulse sequences may allow for clinical translation. <bold><italic>Future Directions:</italic></bold> Pulsed EPR oximetry can be a powerful tool to research various diseases involving hypoxia such as cancer, ischemic heart diseases, stroke, and diabetes. With appropriate paramagnetic probes, it can also be applied for various other purposes such as detecting local acid–base balance or oxidative stress. <italic>Antioxid. Redox Signal.</italic> 28, 1378–1393. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]