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Focuses on a scholarly, seventeenth century, religious society of Jansenists who founded the Port-Royal des Champs in Paris (France). States their writings and teachings were considered heretical. Finds Port-Royal's ideas later became popular culminating in the acceptance of Latin and language translation curricula. (KDR)

Focuses on the humanist ideal of nobility and humanist views about the type of education that would produce noblemen. Details the life and education of William Cecil, also known as Viscount Cranborne, as it pertains to humanist education culture established in the 16th and 17th centuries. (KDR)

Discusses the development of the British educational system and perceptions of teacher's classroom roles. Focuses on pedagogical teaching methods of 17th century English character literature in character education development. Concludes that this era of teachers demonstrated an interest in the complexities of the learning process. (KDR)

Explores the first phase of juvenile emigration from Britain to the Americas in the 17th and 18th centuries. Finds eerie parallels with the last phase of this British social policy in the 1960s as has been discussed in the media during recent years. (SD)

Traces the centrality of moral education in public schools from the 16th to the late 19th century and suggests how the past can serve to inform and to direct the present. It reviews teaching methods and curricular materials used to transmit moral values as well as the views of influential thinkers concerning moral education. (GR)

Analyzes Alexander Richardson's clothing metaphors which connected Ramist precepts to social values and philosophic assumptions drawn from the fields of fashion, psychology, and Puritan theology. Describes how these metaphors presented the Puritan community with an orientation toward listening and inculcated the Puritan speech community with linguistic values which served religious interests. (KEH)

Discusses a computer software package, available for the Apple Macintosh, which simulates the economic and social climate during the reign of Louis XIV of France, 1638-1715. Describes the benefits of using the program as a tool for teaching social history. Includes a course outcome and brief bibliography. (GEA)

Argues against Thomas O. Sloane's allegation that John Milton's "Artis Logicae," a commentary on Pierre de la Ramee's "Dialecticae libri duo," manifests antihumanism characteristics of Milton and Ramus. Reexamines Milton's account of probability, the links between Ramus and Cicero, and the roles Ramism played in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century England. (RAE)

Reviews sixteenth-and seventeenth-century writings by Rastell, More, Eden, Hakluyt, Peckham, Gray, Symonds, Johnson, Strachey, Purchas, Winthrop, and Cotton justifying English occupation of Indian lands through the Biblical Canaan analogy and the secular "vacant land" (vacuum domicilium) principle. Notes dissent by Crashaw, Williams, and others. Contains 95 references. (SV)

Reviews the use of the collaborative learning process in a seventeenth-century intellectual history seminar. Utilizing reader response, peer critiques, small writing groups, and peer tutoring, students became active participants in the learning process and assumed more responsibility for the course material. Includes a complete syllabus and reading list for the course. (RW)

Traces the life and inventions of Thomas A. Edison up to the invention of electrical incandescent lighting in 1881. Focuses on the process that Edison followed in developing incandescent lighting, including financial aspects, other competitors in the field, and the eventual establishment of the Edison Electric Light Companies. (RW)

Explores interactional processes between seventeenth century Iroquoian peoples of Northeast and French Jesuit missionaries who worked among them. Examines Jesuit attempts to change Iroquoian and Huron tribal culture, as reflected in Jesuit records, and evaluates effectiveness of these attempts. Examines Indians' reactions to Jesuit attempts at cultural transmission. (TES)

Argues that the experiences of U.S. women in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries may be uncovered through the colorful legacy of quilts. Outlines the teacher's task in integrating the study of quilts into the curriculum. Presents an imaginary scenario that illustrates the types of comments one might encounter in a classroom discussion on quilts. (DB)

While early modern Spain may seem a world away, it is an extremely rich and relevant context for gaining a better understanding of the Rhetoric of Health, specifically the power of metaphor, in the related spheres of policy-making and public debate. It was a time and place in which the urban populace's physical well-being depended upon the fortunes of theatrical performances due to a system of alms for hospitals driven by ticket receipts. Anti-theatricalists argued that the immoral nature of theatrical performances made them spiritually and medically detrimental to society. Pro-theatricalists argued that plays were always a public good on balance because they raised much-needed funds for hospitals. Instead of producing a conflict between morality and public health, each side reinforced their connection until the two topics became nearly inseparable in the sphere of public debate. While pro-theatricalists mainly stayed with their arguments about funding hospitals, anti-theatricalists developed a new strategy of literalising the metaphor of theatre as a "plague of the republic" and arguing that immoral entertainment brought literal disease to the populace as a punishment from God. This exemplifies Stephen Pender's observation of how, in an early modern medical context, "Rhetoric as a way of perceiving probabilities and adjusting one's argument to the audience and circumstance offers a model of ethical action and interaction". This article is organised chronologically to track specific adjustments to a specific public-health debate that rely upon moral metaphors of medicine. Each side wrangled over these metaphors in an effort to break a deadlock in a public-health policy debate with entertainment, finance, and morality at its centre. By the end of the seventeenth century, anti-theatricalists finally found their best rhetorical weapon in the literalisation of the "plague of the republic" metaphor, but it only offered a short-term solution to banning theatre contingent upon the ebb and flow of epidemics. Simultaneously, the finance structure of funding hospitals began to erase the role of hospitals from the longstanding debate about the morality of public theatre. The case of early modern Spain provides valuable lessons about the power of metaphor in the Rhetoric of Healthcare that are still applicable today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The document "SWEET TOOTH AND BITTER TABLES: Between Materialities and Metaphors in the Dramaturgy of Gil Vicente (D. 1536) and António Ribeiro Chiado (D. 1590)" examines the dramaturgy of Gil Vicente and António Ribeiro Chiado from the 16th century, focusing on the references to food in their works. Gil Vicente is known for his use of food as a religious metaphor, while Ribeiro Chiado criticizes social norms through sweet delights. Both playwrights reflect the eating habits and social changes of their time through their works. [Extracted from the article]

Three decades have passed since South Africa's formal transition from apartheid to liberal democracy. This milestone signified a triumph of hope over despair for a country that had struggled under a suffocating system of racist, dehumanising oppression since its colonisation in the seventeenth century. Reflecting this zeitgeist, divisions, and complicities that had characterised the study, practice, and organisation of psychology within South Africa's racist structures were disassembled. The discipline committed to social justice, inclusive science, liberatory praxis, and global well-being. From a 30-year vantage point that many imagined would represent a clearer picture of a maturing and free rather than an emerging and new South African democracy, this article assesses the discipline's progress in achieving the socio-political, economic, health and psychological imperatives it set for itself in 1994. Through grounding this analysis in the 10 contributions that constitute this Special Issue, the article pits the promises of struggle and hope against the yields of democracy and its imagined freedoms. It argues that despite the unmistakable continuities of despair that define South African life and the discipline's response thereto, there are several discernible legacies of hope that psychology has recuperated in its journey thus far, and that these may offer fault lines for a hopeful future. These moments of hope are most powerful when the discipline seeks solidarity rather than solipsism, transcends rather than polices its epistemic and political boundaries, and embraces ordinariness through disavowing the exceptionalism that forecloses its connectedness to several overriding movements that prioritise planetary justice for all. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In his 1681 Discours sur l'histoire universelle, Bossuet declared that Christianity provided the organizing thread of history, and anything that was not guided by it was irrelevant. Nine years later, in Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding, travel reports provided the primary source of information, above all in their demonstration of the extent of moral diversity. During the Enlightenment, reports of thoroughly "alien" worlds, notably the New World and China, began to be treated as offering wholly unprecedented perspectives on the world and our place in it. The paper surveys how interpretation of the reports changed radically between their original appearance in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and when subjected to new templates of understanding in the Enlightenment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Claude Mauger is a largely forgotten figure today, but he was the most influential French teacher in seventeenth-century England, and his work achieved lasting success in print in England and on the continent. This article offers a new account of his career in person and in print, arguing that this standard-bearer for the prestige of French himself lived a more precarious life, and that his influence stretched throughout Europe and North America and touched languages from English and German to Italian and Arabic. It reconstructs Mauger's networks, including previously undiscussed manuscript material. And it surveys many of the surviving copies of Mauger's works across three continents to ask who read him, where, and how. The study of this one teacher has significant implications for how we think about the teaching and learning of languages, the labour involved, and multilingual reading more broadly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In contemporary times, the design of worship spaces often falls short of meeting the diverse expectations of devotees seeking solace and tranquility. This study presents a critical yet frequently overlooked aspect of temple design-the impact of spatial acoustics on the overall worship experience. Specifically, focus is on the acoustics of the inner sanctum—garbhagriha, and the outer hall—ardhamandapa, which collectively contribute significantly to the ambiance within a temple. Recognizing the need to establish a method for determining the most suitable activities for each temple enclosure, this research conducted a comprehensive study involving two prominent temples in India—the Kashivishweshwar temple and the Siddheshwar temple, built during the seventeenth century. The selected spaces within these temples were categorized based on their acoustic properties and functionality. The categorization aimed to distinguish spaces conducive to musical performances or mass prayers from those best suited for discourses and religious talks. This study aims to assess the acoustic characteristics of temple spaces and determine their suitability for various congregational activities, such as speech-related activities (prayers, religious preachings) and musical performances through in-situ measurements in an unoccupied condition. Objective indicators considered in this work are reverberation time (RT), early decay time (EDT), and clarity of sound (C 80 and C 50). The findings underscore the pivotal role that spatial acoustics play in shaping the appropriateness of temple enclosures for such congregational activities. By categorizing and analyzing the acoustical characteristics of specific temple spaces, this research contributes valuable insights to inform future temple designs and renovations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The early parts of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were significant in the history of today’s Northern Ghana as far as migrations and wars were concerned. It was a period of internecine wars, thus a very important watershed in the history of West Africa when several microstates were in their formative years. This meant the marshalling of all resources possible, including the formation of alliances. The migration of the Anufor to their present location in Ghana and Togo at the behest of the Gonja and subsequently Mamprusi as mercenaries can be traced to the early seventeenth century. Oral traditions and archival sources point to a ‘clientele’ relationship between the Anufor and the kingdoms of Mamprusi, Dagomba, and Gonja. This paper examines the inherent peculiarities that facilitated the migration of the Anufor as mercenaries in ‘wars and battles for others and their contribution to state formation processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay makes a case for assessing the significance of material and labor in the context of the global history of early modern art, through an analysis of a single case or cabinet dated to the second quarter of the seventeenth century: an imposing ebony chest inlaid with mother-of-pearl created by Herman Doomer (1595–1650), a contemporary and compatriot of the Dutch artist Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669). The essay endeavors to address the place of enslaved labor in Dutch seventeenth-century taste that favored foreign goods and materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction to the theme issue on the Politics of Voluntariness in Modern History starts by discussing the origins and uses of the liberal discourse on voluntariness in the seventeenth century. It was during this period that philosophers and politicians began to present voluntariness as specific to liberalism. By the same token, voluntariness and authoritarian rule have been declared incompatible. This introduction and the papers in the theme issue critically discuss the exclusive linkage of voluntariness and liberalism – an interpretation that fails to capture authoritarian governing in its entirety, while ignoring compulsory and exclusionary practices in liberal societies. This theme issue shows voluntariness to be essential to policies and political practices in both liberal and illiberal societies. Political practices are at the core of our articles: amid a web of actors, institutions, discourses, and expectations, the individual means and capacity to act voluntarily, make choices, and overcome constraints are historically and socially variable. The introduction and the theme issue explore this variability to illuminate how voluntariness operates as a driving force for political practices in liberal and illiberal societies, drawing on case studies from German, Swiss, and U.S.-American history in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the seventeenth century, thousands of English‐speaking Protestants went to the Maghreb as captives, diplomats, traders, and travellers. Distant from the guiding and controlling hands of monopoly trading companies and the established churches, and placed under various pressures by non‐Christian neighbours, colleagues, and captors, these Protestants faced the temptation (or opportunity) to compromise or abandon their Christianity and nationality to survive and thrive in their new circumstances. Most English‐speaking residents, whether free expatriates, captives, or converts, felt a tension between attraction to local norms and longing for their lives at home. Using a vast and little‐known collection of merchant correspondence and financial records, this article explores the tension of exile in the professional, material, religious, moral, and ethical lives and views of long‐term free English‐speaking residents (‘expatriates’) in the Maghreb. I argue that the biblical‐theological framework of exile, widespread in contemporary English culture and brought to mind by their circumstances, provided many expatriates with a way of understanding their lives and a set of ethical principles for conducting them appropriately. By considering the ways in which British Protestants made use of this framework, historians can better make sense of their experiences of living in the early modern Islamic world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, analysis of the mitochondrial gene pool structure of residents of the village of Russkoye Ust'ye was carried out. It was revealed that the spectrum of mitochondrial lines of the Russian old-settlers is represented by eight haplogroups and is characterized by the dominance of East Eurasian lineages C, D, G, F, and M13, which amounted to 66.7%. The West Eurasian lineages HV, H, and U (33.3%) were minor, the rare sub-haplogroup H2a which absent in the neighboring East Siberian populations was predominated. It was revealed that, among Russian old-settlers of the Indigirka River, the H2 lineages occurs with one of the highest frequencies in the world (16.7%), forming a specific cluster, distant from the other European H2a lineages, probably formed as a result of a founder effect. The preservation of specific maternal lineages in the gene pool of the Russian old-settlers may be one of the convincing pieces of evidence in favor of the existence of an earlier sea wave of settlement of the Arctic coast of Yakutia by Pomorians in the 16th century, before the arrival of the Cossacks in the 17th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Historical briefings that reassemble the causes and the reasons why the 2 opera theatres (built and destroyed in 1700) have been lost forever. • Analysis of the architectural features typical of Galli Bibiena as family of scenographers, architects and designers. • Attribution of absorption and scattering coefficients to digital models based on both descriptions of historical resources and extensive experience of acoustic measurements and simulations on other opera theatres designed by Galli Bibiena. • Analysis of the simulated results against criteria applied to performance arts spaces. • Comparison of simulated results with values measured in other opera theatres designed by Galli Bibiena. The development of melodrama during the 16th and 17th centuries brought the architects to the elaboration of a different variety of geometry for the main halls of opera theatres. Unfortunately, nowadays there are only a few theatres designed and built during the Baroque period since most of them are completely destroyed. The architectural investigations carried out on two case studies belonging to the Galli Bibiena family have been taken over for a complete acoustic assessment. The digital models related to the Nancy and Tajo opera theatres were built from the outcomes and discoveries on the historical resources consisting of drawings, sketches and general documents. The digital models were used for the acoustic simulations carried out on the main acoustic parameters that evaluate the quality of speech and music inside these two case studies. The simulated results indicate that the acoustic response in the Nancy and Tajo opera theatres is very similar to each other, although the small difference between the two theatres is mainly in function of the volume size rather than other architectural features. Overall, the simulated values are found within or closer to the optimal range set by the criteria, which support the assumption of speech and musical performances given in the royal palaces, the place in which they were erected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this this article I evaluate how authorship of theatre occurred in the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. I explore whether individual playwrights such as William Shakespeare were viewed as authors, and thus owners, of plays at this time. I analyse the role of the Stationers' Company as print monopolists, and the role of Elizabethan theatre companies, who took ownership of scripts for performance purposes. I examine the impact of the publication of the First Folio. I note that the publishing syndicate behind the First Folio, led by Shakespeare's friends John Heminges and Henry Condell, had to obtain the print rights for several plays, not from Shakespeare's estate, but from the various Stationers who had acquired publishing rights while Shakespeare was alive. Therefore, the First Folio stands as an early example, even before statutory copyright existed, of a book created via what we now describe as the 'clearing' of copyright licences. A consequence of the First Folio was not just the emergence of Shakespeare as the English author-figure par excellence; the First Folio coincided with a rising legal expectation that authors should be owners of dramatic texts under copyright law. Throughout the seventeenth century and into the early eighteenth century I mark how tensions between the market power of the Stationers' Company and emerging recognition of the author's literary property led to the first British copyright statute: the Statute of Anne in 1710. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Publishing illustrated booklets to celebrate the weddings of their offspring became a vogue among well-to-do Dutch citizens, many of them Flemish immigrants, at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The private booklets aimed to put occasional poems and songs, the so-called epithalamia, on record, but the fine style of the nuptial ephemera were made even more exclusive by adorning them with illustrations specially commissioned from fashionable artists of the day. The title pages of these occasional booklets were illustrated with the motif of the dextrarum iunctio, two clasped right hands signifying the physical union flowing from the marriage vow. While the dextrarum iunctio was the one element among epithalamic imagery that encapsulated the essential significance of the marital bond, the depictions of the celebrants in the nuptial illustrations were often altered to fit individual circumstances. They were Christ, who was copied after the Marriage for Spiritual Love in Goltzius's Marriage Trilogy, Reformed ministers and the tetragrammaton. Based on the survey of the use of the dextrarum iunctio in Dutch epithalamic illustrations, I will examine how Gerrit van Honthorst's Allegory of the Marriage of Frederik Hendrik and Amalia van Solms of 1649, which was painted for the decoration of the Oranjezaal, was closely associated with the standard epithalamic imagery of the day, incorporating as it does the gesture of the dextrarum iunctio. By addressing the nuptial ephemera as a principal visual source for matrimonial iconography, I will argue that the motif of the dextrarum iunctio was not restricted to the decoration of private wedding booklets, but evolved into the principal symbol of the marriage ritual in the upper echelons of seventeenth-century Dutch society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Rhetorik is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Trans/Form/Ação is the property of Trans/Form/Acao and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

A dataset of just under 10,000 work tasks gleaned from court depositions that records women's as well as men's work, and unpaid as well as paid activities, prompts a reassessment of the transformation of the early modern economy and women's role within it. Rather than sectoral change in production activities with a growth of manufacturing at the expense of agriculture, the evidence suggests that work tasks changed little over time despite occupational specialization increasing. Women's labour force participation is shown to contribute 44 per cent of work in the economy, rather than 30 per cent as in previous estimates. This is partly because of the importance of commercialized housework and care work, which has been largely overlooked in existing models of the early modern economy. Turning to waged work, findings confirm that men's and women's participation in paid agricultural work were linked, with women being employed in greater numbers when men were not available. However, these trends had a strong relationship with access to land, a factor that has been neglected in comparison with demographic trends and the cost of consumables. The organization of work was transformed in the seventeenth century as the number of completely landless households increased rapidly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Famed for its austerity, Jansenism nonetheless prompted a slew of salacious street‐songs throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. If historians have increasingly examined early modern urban singing practices, underlining the social porosity and intergenerational hold of many street‐songs, little research has been devoted to unpicking what songs offer to the study of religious history. The aims of this article are two‐fold. First, it seeks to assess the value (and sketch out some limits) to street‐songs as a source in recovering some of the more popular facets of religious controversies — here, the Jansenist movement. Second, and as a corollary of this, the article uses street‐songs to emphasise the political sophistication to popular interest in Jansenism. It suggests that this antedated and ran alongside the convulsionary movement, which has been typically viewed as the apogee of popular engagement with Jansenism. This article first considers how the hold of specific literary themes and popular tunes over generations impacted discussions on the Jansenist debate, before turning to examine the suitability of songs in capturing devotional and theological content, and finally discussing the complexity of the popular political and ecclesiological ideas on the Jansenist movement that the street‐songs conveyed. The article ultimately seeks to underline the value of street‐songs as a source on urban popular religious expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of community formulated by Samuel Pufendorf, Protestant philosopher and civil servant, in the 17th century, on the one hand, drew upon the Reformation legacy, and on the other hand, explored a more secular and less confessional approach to this issue. The present paper examines how Ernst König, Protestant scholar and President of the Academic Gymnasia in Thorn and in Elbing, applied Pufendorf's concept of community to civic education in West Prussia (Royal Prussia). König was diligent in applying Pufendorf's concept of community to civic education (philosophia / doctrina civilis) as cultivated at the Academic Gymnasia in Thorn and in Elbing where he served as President. He also promoted the idea of civic education in all his ethical writings and made use of Pufendorf's De officio hominis et civis , working with his students. Likewise, supervising works submitted by his students, König made them familiar with Pufendorf's thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1919, the Avant-garde poet Max Jacob translated Ramon Llull's mystical work, the Llibre d'amic e amat (Book of the Lover and the Beloved). In 1921, another translation appeared, authored by the Hispanist and Catholic activist Marius André. The plural strands of modern literary reception of Llull have only been superficially addressed. At the beginning of the 20th century, both Catholic intellectuals and Occultist circles considered his mystical and evangelical endeavors to have extraordinary imaginative potential. Catholic and conservative spheres were prompted to justify the validity and orthodoxy of Lullian doctrines, and to define him as a model. Simultaneously, pseudo-Lullist sources praising his alchemical adventures and the fanciful plasticity of his symbology were noted by Jacob and the Parisian Surrealist circle. This article analyzes the context of two modern translations of the Llibre d'amic e amat (Book of the Lover and the Beloved), as well as the motivations of their translators, to assess the confluence of interests and themes within these traditions. It thus showcases the interdependency between Christian apologetics, often connected to the Catalan intellectuals who were publishing Llull's works at the time, and an international current of eclectic pseudo-Lullism, spanning from at least the 17th century, that was still influential in the works of pansophists, alchemical authors and Surrealist writers, and that would inform present-day, creative reception of the philosopher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I'timād-ud-Daulah (Mîrzâ Gıyâsüddîn Muhammed Tahrânî) is not from Iran, contrary to what is believed, but one of the Turks emigrated from Iran to India. The Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah is located in the center of the city of Agra in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India, in the north of the Agra Fort and in the east of the Yamuna River. In the inscriptions on the building, there are the dates of h. 1037 (g. 1627/28) and h. 1039 (g. 1629/30) and the signature of Abd al Nabi alQurashi, the calligrapher. Although there is not an inscription, endowment or official document about the founder, it is accepted that it was built by Nur Jahan, one of the important woman founders of the period, for her father Mîrzâ Gıyâsüddîn Muhammed Tahrânî and her mother Asmat Begum. The basis of this is the fact that the tombs she built for her husband Jahangir Shah and herself in Lahore are quite similar to I'timād-ud-Daulah in terms of architectural and decorative characteristics. The tomb has an important place in the 17th century Turkish-Islamic architecture. It stands out in many ways among other tombs built during the Mughal period in India. It also serves as an example for the pure tombs or complex structures that include tombs that were built in the later period. The tomb is a pioneer in design in terms of architectural decorations of the Taj Mahal. However, although it is the source of inspiration for Taj Mahal’s designs, it is not as well-known as Taj Mahal. In addition to the fact that the building was the pioneer of many novelties among Turkish-Islamic buildings located in India that had not been seen before, it adhered to the Mughal tomb architecture tradition with its plan schema. Through this study, the location, history, founder and architectural and decorative characteristics of the tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah have been examined, and it has been aimed at contributing the further studies on Mughal period architecture in India and introducing the building, which has not been emphasized so far, to the world of science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The opening of Spain's first railway in 1848 inaugurated a short-lived period of railway euphoria that consumed the imaginations of Spaniards and resulted in the rapid development of nearly 5,000 km of track. While most historians of Spain's nineteenth century concede that the effort failed to trigger the industrialization many had hoped for, it did stimulate the minds of those primed to fantasize about the Spanish future then being constructed with iron and steam. Fueling these dreams of a hyper-modernized future was the dark specter of Spanish decline, a narrative with roots in the seventeenth century and an influential cultural force in the nineteenth. Nineteenth-century railway boosters and journalists frequently conjured up stirring images of a prostrate Spain being lifted out of the mire of decline and re-joining the nations of Europe. This article explores how popular anticipation at the prospect of railways prompted an infectious feeling of possibility that echoed across Spain and promised, if only for a bright and fleeting moment, to ease Spanish insecurities and allow the nation to finally free itself of the terrible burden of its past failures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]