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Because of the brief and cryptic nature of predatory behavior, sentinel prey has been widely adopted as an indirect way to identify predators and understand trophic interactions. However, sentinel prey presents only static visual cues, potentially biasing toward visually oriented predators while ignoring those that utilize other sensory cues for foraging. Despite this, the effectiveness of sentinel prey has rarely been tested. In this study, we focused on the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), a keystone predator widespread in the Asian and Australian tropics. As this species has large eyes and is known to visually navigate in its arboreal habitats, we hypothesized that it relies on visual cues to forage and that its predatory behavior will be captured by caterpillar‐shaped sentinel prey. Ants were collected as colonies, and preference trials on baits were conducted using combinations of olfactory and static visual cues, including the caterpillar shape. Surprisingly, O. smaragdina showed little or no preference for baits in the absence of olfactory cues and did not differentiate the shapes of baits regardless of olfactory cues. Our results indicate that O. smaragdina is likely to make predatory decisions based primarily on olfactory cues, whereas visual cues might be used for other behaviors. Furthermore, O. smaragdina is likely to be left out by the predation studies using sentinel prey models, which is particularly alarming considering the dominant role of this species in the trophic interactions of tropical rainforests. Our study demonstrates that morphological characteristics, arboreal habitats, and visually oriented behavior do not necessarily suggest the use of static visual cues for predatory decisions. We suggest that sentinel prey models should not be used alone when the dominant predators are unlikely to use visual cues to make predatory decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Asian weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, indeed exhibits fascinating social behavior and a unique nesting strategy. The nesting behavior of weaver ants involves a "leaf-weaving," process where the worker ants use the silk produced by their larvae to bind leaves together, creating a complex and sturdy nest structure. Regarding their life stages and metabolic changes, Oecophylla smaragdina as a holometabolous species undergoes complete metamorphosis, involving distinct developmental stages such as egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Each stage is characterized by significant changes in the insect's physiology and appearance. It is essential to study the metabolic changes in these ants during their life stages to better understand their development, behavior, and adaptability to their environment. The main objective of the present study is a biochemical analysis of the life stages of the weaver ant. During this study, various ants were collected at various stages and analyzed for the estimation of protein, carbohydrate, RNA, and DNA. According to the findings, the concentration of proteins was observed to be highest during all life stages of weaver ants. Following proteins, the concentration of RNA was noted to be the highest, then the concentration of DNA and carbohydrates. It was also noted that the concentration of biomolecules increased from the egg stage to the pupal stage, reaching its maximum level at the pupal stage. However, after reaching the maximum level at the pupal stage, the concentration of biomolecules declines as the ant progresses from the white imago to the adult stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Asian weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, indeed exhibits fascinating social behavior and a unique nesting strategy. The nesting behavior of weaver ants involves a "leaf-weaving," process where the worker ants use the silk produced by their larvae to bind leaves together, creating a complex and sturdy nest structure. Regarding their life stages and metabolic changes, Oecophylla smaragdina as a holometabolous species undergoes complete metamorphosis, involving distinct developmental stages such as egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Each stage is characterized by significant changes in the insect's physiology and appearance. It is essential to study the metabolic changes in these ants during their life stages to better understand their development, behavior, and adaptability to their environment. The main objective of the present study is a biochemical analysis of the life stages of the weaver ant. During this study, various ants were collected at various stages and analyzed for the estimation of protein, carbohydrate, RNA, and DNA. According to the findings, the concentration of proteins was observed to be highest during all life stages of weaver ants. Following proteins, the concentration of RNA was noted to be the highest, then the concentration of DNA and carbohydrates. It was also noted that the concentration of biomolecules increased from the egg stage to the pupal stage, reaching its maximum level at the pupal stage. However, after reaching the maximum level at the pupal stage, the concentration of biomolecules declines as the ant progresses from the white imago to the adult stage.

View on Scopus Insect caste development and their morphological divergence are not yet studied well, especially in ants. However, the role of developmental and genetic integration in evolution is contentious. In our study, we tried to reveal the quantitative genetics selection responses, phylogenetic signal, and evolutionary origin of weaver ant female castes (queen, major and minor). The widening and lengthening of the head region, as well as the well-developed mandibular process, are the major heritable characteristics found in the major worker ants. We hypothesized that these conserved and heritable characteristics may help the major worker ants for defense, foraging purposes and other nest-building function aspects. However, in the case of minor worker, small heads and the reduced mandibular process are the more heritable characteristics. Compared to worker ants, in queen, the highly heritable and conserved morphological character is well-developed thoracic regions and large-sized abdomen. It is interesting to note that there is no detectable phylogenetic signal across the female cast of the Asian weaver ants, which suggests that the caste development and morphological divergence are environmentally modulated not evolutionary conserved. From this study, we concluded that caste-specific morphological shape and size are highly conserved traits and these traits are modulated by their niche preferences.

Insect caste development and their morphological divergence are not yet studied well, especially in ants. However, the role of developmental and genetic integration in evolution is contentious. In our study, we tried to reveal the quantitative genetics selection responses, phylogenetic signal, and evolutionary origin of weaver ant female castes (queen, major and minor). The widening and lengthening of the head region, as well as the welldeveloped mandibular process, are the major heritable characteristics found in the major worker ants. We hypothesized that these conserved and heritable characteristics may help the major worker ants for defense, foraging purposes and other nest-building function aspects. However, in the case of minor worker, small heads and the reduced mandibular process are the more heritable characteristics. Compared to worker ants, in queen, the highly heritable and conserved morphological character is well-developed thoracic regions and large-sized abdomen. It is interesting to note that there is no detectable phylogenetic signal across the female cast of the Asian weaver ants, which suggests that the caste development and morphological divergence are environmentally modulated not evolutionary conserved. From this study, we concluded that caste-specific morphological shape and size are highly conserved traits and these traits are modulated by their niche preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural predator–prey interactions in the insect world provide interesting insights into how female herbivores avoid ovipositing in places where a predator’s presence can be perceived. Several insects show such innate behavioural traits that can be harnessed to formulate safe pest management strategies in agriculture. Using customized oviposition assays, we studied the innate oviposition avoidance behaviour of the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis, a frugivorous pest. Fruit flies preferred to lay eggs in a test region smeared with γ-octalactone (an oviposition stimulant used as a positive control) over one smeared with a mix of γ-octalactone and headspace volatiles of the weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, a generalist predator in orchard ecosystems. A combination of the electrophysiologically active odour cues n-undecane and n-tridecane from the headspace volatiles of weaver ants was found to deter female fruit flies from ovipositing. Using these behaviour-modifying chemicals in a blend as a pre-harvest spray could potentially prevent egg-laying by the oriental fruit flies in ready-to-harvest fruits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weaver ants are known for their unique nest-building skills using leaves and larval-silk as a binding agent. The weaver ants, Oecophylla smaragdina are present in large numbers in the Ri-Bhoi district, Meghalaya. Ri-Bhoi district is a hot and humid place with 22 -30°C. This is the first study from this region to examine the nesting behavior along with the population of these ants from here. It was noted that they build nests in different types of trees but it is more abundant in needlewood trees (Schima wallichi) locally known as ‘diengngan.’ From the central trunk of the S. wallichi tree, the nearest distance of the nest is about 0.7 m and the farthest up to 3.4 m. The nests of O. smaragdina are somewhat round-oval and use leaves of different sizes ranging from 8-32 cm2. The nests are made at a height ranging from 4-25 m and their average nest size is about 9,483 cm3. They utilize about twenty leaves with a specific number of chambers to keep their broods, the queen, and food. The number of worker ants, pupae, and larvae are variable in different nests because of nest size, location/height of the nests, and the trees. When the nest population increases, they locate a new spot and build a satellite nest where they get the right amount of sunlight and shelter from predators and adverse environmental factors. These weaver ants are also used as medicine, food and fish bait by the indigenous people in Meghalaya.

Natural habitats can support insect diversity and shape their community structure in agroecosystems. The objective of this research was to investigate how proximity of natural habitat and invasive ant species influences the community structure of ants in oil palm plantations in Central Borneo, Indonesia. Twelve oil palm fields, at varying distances from areas of remaining forest or natural habitat, were selected as research plots. In each plot, insects were sampled using canopy knockdown fogging with a pyrethroid insecticide. In total, we found 62 canopy ant species belonging to six subfamilies. We found that Anoplolepis gracilipes (invasive species) and Oecophylla smaragdina were the most abundant ant species across all of our plots, and their abundances were not spatially correlated. Distance of oil palm fields to natural habitat did not affect species richness and abundance of ants, but affected ant community similarity. Based on the generalized linear models, the ant community similarity was not only affected by the distance to natural habitat but also affected by the abundance of A. gracilipes. A. gracilipes abundance also had a negative effect on other ant abundance especially O. smaragdina. In conclusion, the occurrence of natural habitats helps shape the similarity of ant community in oil palm plantations possibly via inhibits the abundance of invasive species.

Pollinators provide a key ecosystem service that can be influenced by predation and predator avoidance. However, it was unclear whether pollinators can avoid predators by eavesdropping, intercepting predator signals. Using a natural species assemblage, we show that a bee can eavesdrop on and avoid the trail pheromone of a sympatric ant, while foraging on a native plant. The giant Asian honeybee, Apis dorsata, avoided Calliandra haematocephala inflorescences with live weaver ants, Oecophylla smaragdina. Although few foraging bees were attacked, ants killed the bee in almost a third of attacks. Ant presence alone significantly reduced bee floral visits. Bees showed nearly equal avoidance of live ants and trail pheromone extracts, demonstrating that olfactory eavesdropping alone can elicit full avoidance. We then used GC-MS to analyse compounds deposited by ants walking and laying trail pheromone. The most abundant compounds were all trail pheromone components. However, bees did not avoid the most abundant and conspicuous trail pheromone compound, heneicosane. Foragers may instead detect a mixture of different trail pheromone compounds. Our results contribute to a growing understanding of how public information about predators and competitors can shape food webs, and show that pollinators can tap into the private signals of predators and use this information to their advantage.

Pollinators provide a key ecosystem service that can be influenced by predation and predator avoidance. However, it was unclear whether pollinators can avoid predators by eavesdropping, intercepting predator signals. Using a natural species assemblage, we show that a bee can eavesdrop on and avoid the trail pheromone of a sympatric ant, while foraging on a native plant. The giant Asian honeybee, Apis dorsata, avoided Calliandra haematocephala inflorescences with live weaver ants, Oecophylla smaragdina. Although few foraging bees were attacked, ants killed the bee in almost a third of attacks. Ant presence alone significantly reduced bee floral visits. Bees showed nearly equal avoidance of live ants and trail pheromone extracts, demonstrating that olfactory eavesdropping alone can elicit full avoidance. We then used GC-MS to analyse compounds deposited by ants walking and laying trail pheromone. The most abundant compounds were all trail pheromone components. However, bees did not avoid the most abundant and conspicuous trail pheromone compound, heneicosane. Foragers may instead detect a mixture of different trail pheromone compounds. Our results contribute to a growing understanding of how public information about predators and competitors can shape food webs, and show that pollinators can tap into the private signals of predators and use this information to their advantage.

Ants and jumping spiders are prominent invertebrate predators in terrestrial ecosystems. Many jumping spiders are thought to avoid ants and their ant mimicking spiders, yet little is known if they discriminate among different species of ants or mimics. Chances of encountering multiple ants, and mimics all in a relatively short stretch of time and space is fairly common in the tropics, but how all these species interact with each other is not known. In a laboratory setup, we first examined the behavioral response of three ant species (Oecophylla smaragdina, the weaver ants; Camponotus sericeus, the golden backed carpenter ants, and Leptogenys processionalis, the procession ants), and their mimics in the genus Myrmarachne towards the non-mimetic jumping spider Plexippus paykulli. We then examined the response of P paykulli towards the three ant species, and their mimics. Our results suggest that weaver ants and procession ants are more aggressive towards non-mimetic jumping spiders as compared to golden backed ants. The three mimics also differed in their response towards the non-mimetic jumping spider: both weaver ant mimics and golden backed ant mimics charged at the non-mimetic jumping spiders as compared to the procession ant mimics. On the other hand, P. paykulli did not treat all ants similarly: while they looked, and approached the black procession ants by visual cues, they stayed away from weaver ants and golden backed ants. However, P. paykulli treated the three ant mimicking spiders similarly: while they looked at the mimics, they rarely approached or attacked them. Jumping spiders and ants are sympatric, and it may be advantageous to selectively avoid some ants over others. Studies, such as ours go a step closer in understanding multispecies predator–prey interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) is an important insect community in tree canopies, but little is known about their foraging behaviours. Therefore, a field experiment was conducted in order to assess the food preferences and foraging activity of weaver ants for three consecutive days. The food preferences of the weaver ants were evaluated using three types of foods (tuna, chicken skin, and milk powder) containing varying contents of protein, lipid, and carbohydrate. The foraging activity was examined based on two parameters, namely temperature and relative humidity which were recorded throughout the study. Results revealed that food higher in protein content was highly preferred by the O. smaragdina compared to foods with lipid and carbohydrate contents, and the foraging activity of the O. smaragdina was significantly influenced by both temperature and relative humidity. The present study exhibits how the weaver ants respond to different types of foods and indirectly, forming a strategic foraging activity to maximise their food supplies for their colony. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius, 1775) is an aggressive predator that can be used in controlling the pest of teak stand. The research was done to determine the potential of weaver ant to control termite and defoliator of teak stand. Predatory of weaver ant on termite was observed in Laboratory of Forest Health and Protection. The effects of weaver ant on the termite attack on teak trees and the level of teak defoliation were observed. The results showed that in the laboratory study, mortality of termite was 100 % after 12 h of weaver ant presence. In the teak stand, the presence of weaver ant decreased the termite attacks and also the defoliation. The research indicates that weaver ant is potentially used as biocontrol of teak pest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The African weaver ant, Oecophylla longinoda, is used as a biological control agent for the management of pests. The ant has several exocrine glands in the abdomen, including Dufour’s, poison, rectal, and sternal glands, which are associated with pheromone secretions for intra-specific communication. Previous studies have analyzed the gland secretions of Dufour’s and poison glands. The chemistry of the rectal and sternal glands is unknown. We re-analyzed the secretions from Dufour’s and poison glands plus the rectal and sternal glands to compare their chemistries and identify additional components. We used the solid-phase microextraction (SPME) technique to collect gland headspace volatiles and solvent extraction for the secretions. Coupled gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis detected a total of 78 components, of which 62 were being reported for the first time. These additional components included 32 hydrocarbons, 12 carboxylic acids, 5 aldehydes, 3 alcohols, 2 ketones, 4 terpenes, 3 sterols, and 1 benzenoid. The chemistry of Dufour’s and poison glands showed a strong overlap and was distinct from that of the rectal and sternal glands. The different gland mixtures may contribute to the different physiological and behavioral functions in this ant species.

Weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina is distributed from India through SE Asia to North Australia including many tropical western pacific Islands. A recent phylogenetic study of O. smaragdina revealed the central Bangladesh population as SE Asian mainland clade despite of its geographical proximity to India. However, the sample analyzed was limited and the geographical border between the two groups has not been presented. In this study, several samples collected from western parts of Bangladesh have been used to examine the phylogenetic position. A total of 20 O. smaragdina colonies were sampled from 12 Districts during 2013 to 2014. Their haplotype and phylogenetic relationships were determined by analyzing mitochondrial Cytochrome b gene (Cytb) of 606 bp and Cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) of 775bp. Bayesian analysis inferred that the western parts of Bangladesh were occupied by Indian type, which is the first record in the country. The present study suggested that, although the Ganges river has no border effect, both Indian type and SE Asian types occur in Bangladesh.

Unlike silkworm ( Bombyx mori) fibroin (SF), weaver ant ( Oecophylla smaragdina) fibroin (WAF) is much less studied. Due to differences in amino acid composition and protein structure, this work aimed to produce the recombinant WAF protein, designated as WAF1, and investigated on its potential application as a biomaterial for producing a cell-substratum. The composite electrospun scaffolds derived from poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), WAF1, and extracted SF were produced by electrospinning. SEM images revealed non-woven and smooth fibers of PVA, PVA-WAF1, and PVA-SF scaffolds with the average diameters of 204.1 ± 59.9, 206.5 ± 71.5, and 238.4 ± 77.9 nm, respectively. ATR-FTIR spectra indicated characteristic absorption peaks related to the chemical structure of PVA and protein. The PVA-WAF1 scaffold demonstrated a higher water uptake, a slightly higher rate of degradation, and a similar low cytotoxicity as compared with the PVA-SF scaffold. Although the adhesion and proliferation of cells on the PVA-WAF1 scaffold were lower than those on the PVA-SF scaffold, it showed significantly greater values of adhering and proliferating cells than the PVA scaffold. The results of this work suggested that WAF1 could be used as a biomaterial for producing a cell-substratum that supports cell adhesion and growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focuses on the weaver ant, Camponotus textor, Forel which occurs in some areas of the Brazilian Cerrado and Atlantic Forest, and its symbionts: Blochmannia, an obligate symbiont of Camponotus, and Wolbachia, known for causing reproductive alterations in their hosts. The main goal of this study was to investigate the presence, frequency of occurrence, and diversity of Wolbachia and Blochmannia strains in C. textor colonies. We found high infection rates (100%) and the occurrence of at least two distinct strains of Blochmannia (H_1 or H_7) in the same species. The observed haplotype variation within a single species may result from the high mutation rate of the symbiont. Similarly, the Wolbachia was found in all colonies with different rates of infections and a new strain (supergroup A) was deposited in the MLST database. The diversity found in the present study shows that there is still much to explore to understand about these symbiotic interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) has gained widespread interest as the alternative method to use natural, non-toxic substances to facilitate the formation of AgNPs. This work reported on the alternative source of reducing and stabilizing agents from tissue extract of weaver ant ( Oecophylla smaragdina ) larvae. The formation of AgNPs in the reaction containing silver nitrate, the tissue extract, and glucose at 60 °C was indicated by the surface plasmon resonance at 428 nm. Transmission electron microscopy images revealed spherical AgNPs with the average diameter of 67.4 nm. The synthesized AgNPs exhibited potent antibacterial activity against both Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli with the minimum bactericidal concentrations equally at 16 μg/mL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Batesian mimics typically dupe visual predators by resembling noxious or deadly model species. Ants are unpalatable and dangerous to many arthropod taxa, and are popular invertebrate models in mimicry studies. Ant mimicry by spiders, especially jumping spiders, has been studied and researchers have examined whether visual predators can distinguish between the ant model, spider mimic and spider non-mimics. Tropical habitats harbour a diverse community of ants, their mimics and predators. In one such tripartite mimicry system, we investigated the response of an invertebrate visual predator, the ant-mimicking praying mantis ( Euantissa pulchra), to two related ant-mimicking spider prey of the genus Myrmarachne, each closely mimicking its model ant species. We found that weaver ants ( Oecophylla smaragdina) were much more aggressive than carpenter ants ( Camponotus sericeus) towards the mantis. Additionally, mantids exhibited the same aversive response towards ants and their mimics. More importantly, mantids approached carpenter ant-mimicking spiders significantly more than often that they approached weaver ant-mimicking spiders. Thus, in this study, we show that an invertebrate predator, the praying mantis, can indeed discriminate between two closely related mimetic prey. The exact mechanism of the discrimination remains to be tested, but it is likely to depend on the level of mimetic accuracy by the spiders and on the aggressiveness of the ant model organism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mango seed weevil, Sternochetus mangiferae (Fabricius), is among the major threats to mango production in Tanzania. Sternochetus mangiferae is primarily a quarantine pest whose presence inside the fruits restricts access to new foreign markets and leads to rejections of fruits destined for export. Management options for the pest have largely been dependent on field sanitation and application of synthetic insecticides with some success. Thus, more sustainable methods are needed to substitute insecticides, as this may also open up opportunities for organic markets. We conducted field experiments for two fruiting seasons in a mango plantation at Mlandizi, Kibaha district, along the coastal belt of Tanzania to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of the predaceous ant Oecophylla longinoda Latreille with foliar insecticidal sprays of Dudumida (70 WDG Imidacloprid) in controlling S. mangiferae. Mango seed weevil infestation was assessed fortnightly based on infestation marks on developing fruits starting eight weeks after fruit set to early ripening phase. Between 50 and 64 fruits were sampled, well labelled in jute bags, secured and transported to the laboratory at Kibaha Biological Control Unit (KBCU) for incubation at room temperature using rearing transparent containers. Two weeks later, the fruits were dissected and inspected for the presence of S. mangiferae developmental stages. Field and laboratory results indicated that fruits from trees that were occupied by O. longinoda and from those treated with insecticide showed significantly (P < 0.0001) lower incidences and infestation rates by S. mangiferae than from untreated trees. Furthermore, there were no significant differences between the insecticide and the weaver ant treatments. We conclude that in our experiments, O. longinoda is an efficient biological control agent for a long-term control programme and is comparable to insecticide (Dudumida) in suppressing S. mangiferae and may be used in Tanzanian mango plantations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The formicine weaver ant P olyrhachis australis Mayr is one among many species of ants that have queens of two more or less distinct sizes, usually referred to as microgynes and macrogynes. The current consensus explains this phenomenon in terms of alternative strategies of dispersal and reproduction: microgynes typically walk to found new nests locally, macrogynes typically fly to found new nests farther afield. This study addressed four questions bearing on that interpretation: is the dimorphism complete (without intermediate sizes) or continuous in P . australis? Does the proportion of macrogynes correlate with the number of queens in the nest? Does the microgyne/macrogyne proportion vary over time? And are brachypterous individuals always microgynes? The implications of these questions concern the fitness status of the intermediate size individuals, the relative fitnesses of the two main morphs as the number of queens diminishes, the influence of habitat conditions on the production of the morphs, and the dispersal behaviour of microgynes . The size distribution of P . australis queens was incompletely bimodal, with some individuals of intermediate size. The proportion of macrogynes in nests increased with decreasing numbers of queens in nests, suggesting that macrogynes do better in whatever contests take place between queens during the ergonomic stage. Between 2009 and 2014, the proportion of macrogynes in nests fell from about 1 in 3 or 4, to less than 1 in 11, perhaps reflecting a differential production of queen morphs in saturated and unsaturated habitats: it profits a colony to produce more microgynes and fewer macrogynes when local conditions favour the easy founding of new nests by walking. Brachyptery was centred on the smallest microgynes, consistent with their assumed mode of dispersal for which wings are not needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parasites are an important force in evolution, driving the need for costly resistance mechanisms. The threat from disease is potentially high in group-living species such as social insects, which have accordingly evolved behavioural and chemical defences that vary between species depending on their life histories. Several ant genera have lost a key exocrine antimicrobial defence, the metapleural gland, and yet are still able to thrive in environments abundant with parasites. We investigate, in species lacking the metapleural gland, how the production of antimicrobial venom, grooming behaviours and the use of potentially antimicrobial larval silk may have evolved as alternative antiparasite defences. We focus on the Australasian weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina and compare this to Polyrhachis weaver ants. We show that the production of venom by O. smaragdina workers is important for disease resistance but that the presence of larval silk is not, and that workers use their acidic venom to maintain nest hygiene. The grooming defences of O. smaragdina differ between castes, with minor workers allogrooming more and major workers showing greater upregulation of grooming in response to parasites. Chemical and behavioural defences differ interspecifically between O. smaragdina and Polyrhachis, with O. smaragdina appearing to rely primarily on its venom while Polyrhachis use higher rates of grooming. The results show how alternative investment strategies can evolve for disease defence, notably the highly effective application of acidic venom by O. smaragdina, and highlight the need for targeted comparative studies to understand how organisms respond to the ubiquitous threat from parasites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weaver ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) are mostly seen in open forests of India, Australia, China and Southeast Asia. The nests of weaver ants are built with silk secreted by their larvae. Silk fibre mat is a biopolymer, containing proteins produced by a broad array of spiders and other insects. In this study some hidden properties of weaver ant silk mat have been examined. The surface and structural studies reveal that the mat possesses very good chemical resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability of an organism to detect threats is fundamental to mounting a successful defense and this is particularly important when resisting parasites. Early detection of parasites allows for initiation of defense mechanisms, which are vital in mitigating the cost of infection and are likely to be especially important in social species, particularly those whose life history makes parasite pressure more significant. However, understanding the relative strength of behavioral responses in different species and situations is still limited. Here, we test the response of individual ants to fungal parasites in 3 different contexts, for 4 ant species with differing life histories. We found that ants from all 4 species were able to detect fungi on their food, environment, and nest mates and initiate avoidance or upregulate grooming behaviors accordingly to minimize the threat to themselves and the colony. Individuals avoided fungal-contaminated surfaces and increased grooming levels in response to fungal-contaminated nest mates. Ants from all species responded qualitatively in a similar way although the species differed quantitatively in some respects that may relate to life-history differences. The results show that ants of multiple species are capable of recognizing fungal threats in various contexts. The recognition of parasite threats may play an important role in enabling ant colonies to deal with the ever-present threat from disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]