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Natural fibres improve polymer composite because fibre's weight-to-density ratio is low compared to metal/synthetic fibres. This study aims to use a hand layup for making the five different samples of composite material from the Millettia pinnata (MP) fibre reinforced with zirconia nanofiller mixed polyester matrix by varying with other filler weight fractions. The effect of MP fibre antibacterial properties and mechanical characteristics, thermal behaviour, and thermal stability of MP composite were experimentally analysed. The results reveal the addition of zirconia filler improved the mechanical properties in sample E (100g MP fibre, 50g ZrO2, and 100g matrix), such as tensile strength, flexural strength, compressive strength, and impact strength (0.034 J/mm2). Also, zirconia filler influenced in sample E, which contains superior results in thermal stability and material degradation temperature can be identified from thermogravimetric measurement, the degradation temperature of this MP composite lies between 298 and 349 °C, and scanning electron microscopy examined the failure mode of this composite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiesel from waste oil is produced using heterogeneous catalyzed transesterification in a fixed bed reactor (FBR). Potassium iodide/calcium oxide/alumina (KI/CaO/Al2O3) catalyst was prepared through the processes of calcination and impregnation. The novel catalyst was analyzed with X‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X‐ray spectrometer (EDX). The design of experiment (DoE) method resulted in a total of 20 experimental runs. The significance of 3 reaction parameters, namely catalyst bed height, methanol to waste oil molar ratio, and residence time, and their combined impact on biodiesel yield is investigated. Both the artificial neural network (ANN) based on artificial intelligence (AI) and the Box‐Behnken design (BBD) based on response surface methodology (RSM) were utilized in order to optimize the process conditions and maximize the biodiesel production. A quadratic regression model was developed to predict biodiesel yield, with a correlation coefficient (R) value of 0.9994 for ANN model and a coefficient of determination (R2) value of 0.9986 for BBD model. The maximum amount of biodiesel that can be produced is 98.88 % when catalyst bed height is 7.87 cm, molar ratio of methanol to waste oil is 17.47 : 1, and residence time is 3.12 h. The results of this study indicate that ANN and BBD models can effectively be used to optimize and synthesize the highest %yield of biodiesel in a FBR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rechargeable zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) have grown in popularity due to their low cost and the abundance of resources. However, there has been little research into the development of gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) for high voltage and capacity ZIBs. The use of agricultural waste as a polymer electrolyte (PE) is gradually increasing in order to support a circular economy. This study focuses on the utilization of cellulose derived from coffee silverskin (CS); coffee silverskin is a by-product generated during coffee roasting. We employ a reasonable approach to create the coffee silverskin cellulose (CSC)/polyacrylamide (PAM) GPE, with the goal of achieving good properties and improved battery performance. An investigation was conducted to determine the effect of CSC content in GPEs on ZIB characteristics. The cellulose derived from CS had a crystallinity index (CrI) of 64.60%. The optimal amount of cellulose added to the acrylamide monomer (AM) for the GPE of ZIB was found to be 2.5 mg (CSC/AM/salt weight ratio of 0.01/6/23). This amount resulted in the highest electrochemical stability and a cycling time of approximately 226 h. Furthermore, the PAM/Cellulose 2.5-based GPE exhibited increased Young's modulus and tensile strength compared to the pure PAM. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) test revealed a diffusion resistance of 27.47 Ω and an ionic conductivity of 9.10 mS/cm at a temperature of 25 °C. Additionally, the use of cellulose in GPEs does not affect the electrochemical window. When the pure PAM-based GPE was compared to the CSC/PAM-based GPE, the biocomposites demonstrated electrochemical stability for a cycle life of over 200 cycles in the ZIB application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mandarin peel (MP) has gained attention as a feedstock for flavonoid recovery via the extraction process based on the biorefinery concept, but residues remain after the extraction. Toward an integrated biorefinery concept, this study aimed to valorize extracted MP (eMP) by using it in bioethanol production. For efficient fermentable sugar production, the effect of enzymatic hydrolysis conditions on sugar conversion from eMP was investigated, and the results showed that combining cellulase and cellobiase resulted in a higher enzymatic glucose conversion (78.2%) than the use of the individual enzymes (37.5% and 45.6%). Pectinase played an essential role in enhancing enzymatic arabinose conversion, and the optimal conditions were determined to be pH 4 and 90 units of the three enzymes. Under optimal conditions, the sugar yield was 199 g glucose and 47 g arabinose/kg eMP, and the hydrolysate was used in bioethanol fermentation. The results showed that the bioethanol production was 3.78 g/L (73.9% yield), similar to the control medium (3.79 g/L; 74.2% yield), although the cell growth of the yeast was slightly delayed in the eMP hydrolysate medium. This study highlights the potential of eMP as a low-cost feedstock for sugar and bioethanol production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluates anaerobic bioconversion using landfill-derived microbes to produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs) as bioproducts. The research was conducted using different substrates, including elephant grass, starch waste, and fruit waste. Landfill-derived microbes collected from the landfill site were used as inoculum. The results show that the carbohydrate composition in the substrate affects VFA production. Simpler substrates, such as starch waste and fruit waste, produced more VFAs (approximately 50 mmol · L–1) than that of more complex substrate of grass (approximately 25 mmol · L–1). The results showed that using simpler substrates (i.e. starch and fruit waste) produce VFAs two times higher than that of the complex substrate or lignocellulosic biomass-based feedstock (i.e. grass). These findings provide valuable insights into the potential use of landfill-derived microbes in the anaerobic bioconversion process to produce VFAs. By understanding the influence of carbohydrate composition, we can enhance the efficiency of VFA production from organic waste, which can be used in various industrial applications. This is a crucial step towards more sustainable waste management and more efficient resource utilisation.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture has been identified as a potential technology for reducing the anthropic emissions of greenhouse gases, particularly in post-combustion processes. The development of adsorbents for carbon capture and storage is expanding at a rapid rate. This article presents a novel sustainable synthesis method for the production of chitosan/activated carbon CO2 adsorbents. Chitosan is a biopolymer that is naturally abundant and contains amino groups (–NH2), which are required for the selective adsorption of CO2. Spent coffee grounds have been considered as a potential feedstock for the synthesis of activated coffee grounds through carbonization and chemical activation. The chitosan/activated coffee ground composite microspheres were created using the emulsion cross-linking method with epichlorohydrin. The effects of the amount of chitosan (15, 20, and 25 g), activated coffee ground (10, 20, 30, and 40%w/w), and epichlorohydrin (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 g) were examined. The CO2 capture potential of the composite beads is superior to that of the neat biopolymer beads. The CO2 adsorbed of synthesized materials at a standard temperature and pressure is improved by increasing the quantity of activated coffee ground and epichlorohydrin. These findings suggest that the novel composite bead has the potential to be applied in CO2 separation applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Catalysts play a crucial role in the transesterification reaction involved in the production of biodiesel. It is vitally important to conduct research on catalysts with high efficiency, competitive pricing, and ease of manufacture. Chitosan (CS) is one of the biodegradable and sustainable polymers used in a variety of fields due to its wide availability, low environmental impact, and diverse functional group composition. This study involved the synthesis of N-(2-hydroxy) propyl-3-trimethyl ammonium chitosan chloride (HTCC) via the interaction of CS with glycidyl trimethylammonium chloride (GTMAC). Then, an alkaline catalyst based on a polymer can be easily constructed for use in biodiesel production by combining HTCC with sodium metasilicate (SMS). Epichlorohydrin (ECH) was used as a chemical linker between the HTCC chains to make SMS more stable in the polymer. The synthesized polymer-based catalyst was successfully identified using techniques including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) technique. Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to analyze the effect of various experimental conditions on the percentage of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) produced in a batch reactor. The molar ratio of methanol/waste vegetable oil (WVO), amount of catalyst, and reaction time were considered in order to maximize the %yield of FAME. Highest FAME yield of 97.74 % was achieved via optimizing the following parameters: 9:1 molar ratio of methanol/WVO, 3.5 wt.% catalyst amount, and 1.5 h reaction time. The HTCC-based solid catalysts shown excellent catalytic activity for the transesterification of WVO. In addition, these catalysts displayed excellent reusability for up to 5 consecutive runs without experiencing a substantial activity drop.

Within the past few decades, thousands of experiments have been performed to characterize urban waste and biomass to estimate their bioenergy potential and product identification. There is a need to develop an integrated process model based on the experimental literature, as well as simulations to obtain suitable products. In this study, municipal solid waste (MSW), including paper and plastic characterization and an integrated process model, were developed to optimize the final products in a reactor system. The process model has two modes, R&D and reactor control (RC), to obtain suitable products including bio-oil, char, and gases. A database was integrated based on thermokinetics, machine learning, and simulation models to optimize product efficiency. The experimental data include those obtained by thermogravimetric analysis and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, which were linked to a pyrolysis experimental setup. Feedstock product mapping models were incorporated into the database along with the temperature, heating rates, elemental analysis, and final product concentration, which were utilized for the pyrolysis reactor setup. Product feasibility was conducted based on life cycle cost, affordability, and product efficiency. The present work will bridge the gap between experimental studies and decision-making based on obtained products under several experimental conditions around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lactic acid (LA) is an important platform chemical with a wide range of applications, including bioplastic materials, and demand for it is growing rapidly. However, the high cost of feedstock for LA production is a major barrier to industrial production. This study designed a process to produce LA from chestnut shell (CS), a low-cost biomass. The entire process includes KOH pretreatment, enzymatic saccharification, and fermentation. This study investigated the chemical compositions and physicochemical properties of raw CS and KOH pretreated CS (KpCS) to evaluate the impact of the pretreatment process that enhances the conversion of cellulose into glucose. The results showed that KOH affected the lignin removal and surface morphological changes of CS, and FT-IR and TGA patterns correlated to increased cellulose fractions were found. In the fermentation process, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus was selected as a prominent LA producer, and the fermentation using KpCS hydrolysate was carried out. As a result, cell growth (27%), glucose consumption (23%), and LA production (21%) were all achieved higher than the control group. The LA production yield from our suggested process was estimated to be 187 g/kg CS, and we concluded that CS has a high potential as a feedstock for LA production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wastewater generated from diverse human activities needs to be treated, restore, and reused. Researchers have moved from the deployment of synthetic absorbents to manufacturing adsorbents from waste biomass for the elimination of contaminants from wastewater. The deployment of biochar constructed from agricultural waste has elicited significant devotion due to its ready availability, accessibility, low cost, ease of preparation, and environmental sustainability. This review presents developments in the utilization of biochar obtained from agricultural waste for the remediation of domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater, agricultural wastewater, and stormwater. Discussions on the classification, composition, and characteristics of agricultural waste, techniques for biochar production, and characteristics of wastewater as well as the outcomes of the deployment of biochar in the decontamination of wastewater were highlighted. The study concludes that, notwithstanding the identified environmental, social, economic, and infrastructural challenges, biochar constructed from agricultural waste is an effective, efficient, easy to use, and eco-friendly adsorbent for the decontamination of wastewater. Agricultural waste-derived biochar removes contaminants from wastewater and safeguards aquatic ecosystem and contributes to availability of safe water. Future research directions on innovative and more effective avenues for the application of biochar developed from agricultural waste for wastewater treatment are suggested. The outcome of this review will stimulate renewed interests in using readily available and eco-friendly materials in wastewater remediation.

Lactic acid is a versatile chemical with a wide range of industrial applications, including food additives as well as the production of biodegradable plastics, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. LA can be produced through carbohydrate fermentation using various microorganisms, including lactic acid bacteria (LAB). However, the high production cost of commercial fermentation media for lactic acid raises concerns among researchers. Consequently, there is a demand for research to develop new, more affordable, and sustainable fermentation media. Utilizing underutilized agro-industrial wastes from Malaysia, particularly in the coconut, oil palm, rice, and sugarcane processing industries, offers several advantages. These include biomass reuse, cost-effective production of valuable chemicals, and agricultural waste reduction. This review discusses the potential of underutilized Malaysian agro-industrial waste from the coconut, oil palm, rice and sugarcane processing industries as sustainable carbon sources for LA production. The topics covered encompass the chemical and nutritional composition of the wastes, their potential for lactic acid fermentation with specific microorganisms, factors influencing lactic acid production, and potential applications. Additionally, this review also highlights the challenges and opportunities associated with reutilizing agricultural waste for lactic acid production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present investigation, response surface methodology (RSM) and machine learning (ML) are applied to the biodiesel production process via acid-catalyzed transesterification and esterification of triglyceride (TG). In order to optimize the production of biodiesel from used cooking oil (UCO) in a microwave reactor, these models are also compared. During the process, Box–Behnken design (BBD) and an artificial neural network (ANN) were used to evaluate the effect of the catalyst content (3.0–7.0 wt.%), methanol/UCO mole ratio (12:1–18:1), and irradiation time (5.0–9.0 min). The process conditions were adjusted and developed to predict the highest biodiesel yield using BBD with the RSM approach and an ANN model. With optimal process parameters of 4.94 wt.% catalyst content, 16.76:1 methanol/UCO mole ratio, and 8.13 min of irradiation time, a yield of approximately 98.62% was discovered. The coefficient of determination (R2) for the BBD model was found to be 0.9988, and the correlation coefficient (R) for the ANN model was found to be 0.9994. According to the findings, applying RSM and ANN models is advantageous when optimizing the biodiesel manufacturing process as well as making predictions about it. This renewable and environmentally friendly process has the potential to provide a sustainable route for the synthesis of high-quality biodiesel from waste oil with a low cost and high acid value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The by-product from pistachio (Pistachia vera) has been valorised over the years as an adsorbent material for water treatment. The aim of this review was to synthesise the empirical findings on the uptake of different pollutants using adsorbents developed from pistachio waste. This was done to evaluate the progress of research on the subject matter, identify knowledge gaps and propose interesting areas for future work. Iran was observed to be a major source country (31%) of pistachio feedstock for adsorbent preparation. The highest reported specific surface area for pistachio adsorbent was 1884 m2/g for a carbon activated by NH4NO3 + NaOH and carbonised at 800 °C. Pistachio adsorbents showed very good removal efficiencies (> 90% in most cases) for both dyes, heavy metals, pharmaceuticals and other compounds. Isotherm and kinetics modelling was always best-fit to the classical Langmuir and Freundlich models and the pseudo-second-order kinetics model, respectively. HCl was the regularly used eluent for heavy metals desorption, while alkalis and organic acids were more regularly used for dyes. Interesting areas for future work include adsorbent preparation by physical activation, research interest in emerging contaminants, improvement of adsorbent desorption, utilisation of statistical physics modelling tools and the investigation of spent adsorbent disposal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the past few decades, thousands of experiments have been performed to characterize urban waste and biomass to estimate their bioenergy potential and product identification. There is a need to develop an integrated process model based on the experimental literature, as well as simulations to obtain suitable products. In this study, municipal solid waste (MSW), including paper and plastic characterization and an integrated process model, were developed to optimize the final products in a reactor system. The process model has two modes, R&D and reactor control (RC), to obtain suitable products including bio-oil, char, and gases. A database was integrated based on thermokinetics, machine learning, and simulation models to optimize product efficiency. The experimental data include those obtained by thermogravimetric analysis and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, which were linked to a pyrolysis experimental setup. Feedstock product mapping models were incorporated into the database along with the temperature, heating rates, elemental analysis, and final product concentration, which were utilized for the pyrolysis reactor setup. Product feasibility was conducted based on life cycle cost, affordability, and product efficiency. The present work will bridge the gap between experimental studies and decision-making based on obtained products under several experimental conditions around the world.

Characterization and quantification of solid waste in Equity girls hostel blocks, Igbinedion University Okada was carried out to provide data for waste management strategy in the University. The waste survey was done for 3 months by collecting generated wastes from various rooms on a daily basis excluding Sundays. The collected wastes were segregated and sorted into their various constituents and weighed using an automatic weighing scale. Waste per capita per head was also determined by estimating the total number of students/population in the study area. Identified wastes constituents were plastics, paper, glass, bottles, organic wastes, etc. The total amount of waste recorded was 1605.65kg for 3 months. Organic wastes recorded the highest amount of wastes generated with a total of 304.542kg (19%) followed by glass/bottles recorded as 250.993kg (16%). Waste per capita per day was estimated as 0.045kg. From the wastes stream, some wastes were identified as reusable and recyclable which can generate income for the university when properly handled and it will indirectly aid in decreasing the volume and amount of wastes to be disposed. Organic wastes have been identified to constitute the highest amount of waste in the waste stream. These organic wastes are degradable and can be utilized for crop production and agricultural purposes which invariably contribute to waste stream reduction. Adopting efficient waste mangement strategy will create wealth, reduce pollution and demand on raw materials, and provide a greener environment.

Millions of tons of agricultural waste are generated annually. The disposal and management of these wastes remain a source of legitimate concerns for environmentalists, governments, and other stakeholders. Inappropriate disposal and management of these wastes constitute an environmental eyesore, health hazards, and source of contamination for aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Conversion of agricultural wastes into useful products remains a cost-effective, eco-friendly, and sustainable strategy for waste management. This study reviews various pretreatment practices aimed at improving the biodegradability and digestibility of agricultural lignocellulosic biomass. The common pretreatment techniques such as physical, chemical, biological, and physicochemical as well as the novel green solvent-based pretreatment are reviewed and emphasized to improve their practicability and applicability. This review encompasses the processes, benefits, and drawbacks of the various pretreatment techniques to further enrich literature and stimulate renewed investigations in the research space. The outcome of this study will stimulate further investment in agricultural waste conversion and utilization. Waste conversion is a feasible waste management strategy for a clean environment and sustainable ecosystem. Going forward, more targeted investigations are needed to evolve innovative techniques to simplify the conversion of agricultural wastes into valuable products. Governments, across jurisdictions, environmentalists, policymakers, and other stakeholders should sensitize citizens to dislodge the religious and cultural barriers against waste conversion.

Great progress in the development of low-cost ceramic membranes from alternative materials have been achieved recently towards various application especially water and wastewater treatment. However, their significance has not been fully recognized and understood especially in term of their microstructural analysis such as formation of grain growth and microcracks. This review paper summarizes fabrication method, alternative materials, microstructure, wettability, mechanical properties and application of low-cost ceramic membrane. The fabrication method including slip casting, tape casting, extrusion, pressing method and phase inversion technique are described. Alternative materials used in low-cost ceramic membrane fabrication are discussed and categorized into clays, agricultural waste, industrial waste and animal bone waste. The mechanisms of morphology formation, microstructure and wettability properties are analysed. Modification strategies for the surface of low-cost ceramic membrane are discussed, and classified into modification for separation application, modification for photocatalytic application and modification for membrane distillation and membrane contactor system. Modification improves the membrane structure by changing the pore size, porosity and wettability properties of low-cost ceramic membranes. Mechanical properties of low-cost ceramic membranes are also discussed in detail towards several mechanism, like grain growth phenomenon and formation of microcracks which also considered as membrane defects. Grain growth phenomenon can be divided into normal and abnormal grain growth. Meanwhile, formation of microcracks could be occurred in single-phase polycrystalline ceramics that have anisotropic grains or biphasic polycrystalline grains. The application of low-cost ceramic membrane in seawater desalination, oily wastewater treatment, heavy metal adsorption, textile separation and photocatalytic application are reviewed. Finally, some possible opportunities and challenges for further development of low-cost ceramic membrane are pointed out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiesel from waste oil is produced using heterogeneous catalyzed transesterification in a fixed bed reactor (FBR). Potassium iodide/calcium oxide/alumina (KI/CaO/Al 2 O 3 ) catalyst was prepared through the processes of calcination and impregnation. The novel catalyst was analyzed with X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX). The design of experiment (DoE) method resulted in a total of 20 experimental runs. The significance of 3 reaction parameters, namely catalyst bed height, methanol to waste oil molar ratio, and residence time, and their combined impact on biodiesel yield is investigated. Both the artificial neural network (ANN) based on artificial intelligence (AI) and the Box-Behnken design (BBD) based on response surface methodology (RSM) were utilized in order to optimize the process conditions and maximize the biodiesel production. A quadratic regression model was developed to predict biodiesel yield, with a correlation coefficient (R) value of 0.9994 for ANN model and a coefficient of determination (R 2 ) value of 0.9986 for BBD model. The maximum amount of biodiesel that can be produced is 98.88 % when catalyst bed height is 7.87 cm, molar ratio of methanol to waste oil is 17.47 : 1, and residence time is 3.12 h. The results of this study indicate that ANN and BBD models can effectively be used to optimize and synthesize the highest %yield of biodiesel in a FBR., (© 2024 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Continuous environmental degradation, volatility in the oil market, and unimpressive functioning of fossil-based (FB) fuels in compression ignition engines have expanded the tempo of the search for alternative fuels. Due to the astronomical rise in global population, improved agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing activities, enhanced farming and other food production and utilization ventures, agricultural waste generation, renewable fuel consumption, and emission of toxic gases. The need for cost-effective, readily available, and environmentally benign agricultural waste to biofuels has never been more crucial. Biofuels are renewable, biodegradable, low-cost, and eco-friendly fuels that are produced by microorganisms from waste lignocellulosic biomass. Conversion of agricultural wastes to biofuel does not exacerbate food security, contributes to waste management, prevents environmental degradation, and ensures energy security. This study reviews the conversion of agricultural wastes into biofuels with special emphasis on bioethanol, biohydrogen, biobutanol, biomethane, biomethanol, and biodiesel for various applications. It is safe to conclude that wastes generated from agricultural activities and processes are useful and can be harnessed to meet the affordable and accessible global renewable energy target. The result of this investigation will improve the body of knowledge and provide novel strategies and pathways for the utilization of agricultural wastes. Going forward, more collaborative and interdisciplinary studies are required to evolve state-of-the-art, ecofriendly, and cost-effective conversion pathways for agricultural wastes to promote the utilization of the generated renewable fuels. More human, financial, and infrastructural investments are desirable to motivate the conversion of agricultural waste into biofuels to ensure environmental sanitation and sustainability, promote renewable fuel utilization, and avert the raging implosion of our planet.

[Display omitted] • Insects can valorize waste- and by-products through their microbiomes. • New innovative technologies allow manipulation of host-microbiomes. • Microbiome manipulation can improve insect food and feed production. • Legislation and stakeholders must be considered for successful implementation. One third of the food produced for human consumption is currently lost or wasted. Insects have a high potential for converting organic waste- and by-products into food and feed for a growing human population due to symbiosis with microorganisms. These symbioses provide an untapped reservoir of functional microbiomes that can be used to improve industrial insect production but are poorly studied in most insect species. Here we review the most current understanding and challenges of valorizing organic waste- and by-products through insects and their microbiomes for food and feed, and emerging novel food technologies that can be used to investigate and manipulate host(insects)-microbiome interactions. We further construct a holistic framework, by integration of novel food technologies including holo-omics, genome editing, breeding, phage therapy, and administration of prebiotics and probiotics to investigate and manipulate host(insects)-microbiome interactions, and solutions for achieving stakeholder acceptance of novel food technologies for a sustainable food production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Distributed waste-to-hydrogen (WtH) systems are a potential solution to tackle the dual challenges of sustainable waste management and zero emission transport. Here we propose a concept of distributed WtH systems based on gasification and fermentation to support hydrogen fuel cell buses in Glasgow. A variety of WtH scenarios were configured based on biomass waste feedstock, hydrogen production reactors, and upstream and downstream system components. A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) was conducted to compare the economic feasibility of the different WtH systems with that of the conventional steam methane reforming-based method. This required the curation of a database that included, inter alia , direct cost data on construction, maintenance, operations, infrastructure, and storage, along with indirect cost data comprising environmental impacts and externalities, cost of pollution, carbon taxes and subsidies. The levelized cost of hydrogen (LCoH) was calculated to be 2.22 GB P/kg for municipal solid waste gasification and 2.02 GB P/kg for waste wood gasification. The LCoHs for dark fermentation and combined dark and photo fermentation systems were calculated to be 2.15 GB P/kg and 2.29 GB P/kg. Sensitivity analysis was conducted to identify the most significant influential factors of distributed WtH systems. It was indicated that hydrogen production rates and CAPEX had the largest impact for the biochemical and thermochemical technologies, respectively. Limitations including high capital expenditure will require cost reduction through technical advancements and carbon tax on conventional hydrogen production methods to improve the outlook for WtH development. • Economic feasibility of waste-to-hydrogen technologies systematically presented. • Steam methane reforming as a conventional hydrogen production method for comparison. • Organic fraction municipal solid waste, wood waste and wet waste (sludge) considered. • Levelized cost of hydrogen calculated as the main economic indicator. • The most sensitive variables are the efficiency and the energy density of feedstock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the sustainable production of Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) mushroom using agro-industrial wastes. The substrate of Shiitake (80% rice straw + 20% sugar cane bagasse) was moistened with 0 (freshwater as control), 50, and 100% concentrations of secondarily treated dairy plant and sugar mill wastewaters (DPW and SMW). After proper sterilization, the cultivation was carried out under controlled environmental conditions using the bag log method for 100 days. The results revealed that DPW and SMW moistening significantly (p < 0.05) increased the nutrient levels of the formulated substrate which later gave better mushroom yield. The highest Shiitake mycelial coverage (90.70 ± 1.47 and 88.65 ± 1.82%), yield (186.00 ± 3.10 and 176.09 ± 4.12 g/kg fresh substrate), biological efficiency (80.00 ± 0.58 and 75.73 ± 0.93%), total phenol (2.84 ± 0.03 and 2.69 ± 0.03 mg/g), ascorbic acid (0.34 ± 0.03 and 0.32 ± 0.02 mg/g), and β-carotene (2.48 ± 0.06 and 2.29 ± 0.02 μg/g) contents with the minimum time taken for spawn running (60 ± 1 days) was observed using a 50% concentration treatment of both DPW and SMW, respectively. Besides this, the kinetic studies using a first-order-based model showed acceptable accuracy in predicting the rate constant for substrate delignification and heavy metal uptake by Shiitake mushroom. These findings suggest a novel approach for sustainable mushroom cultivation using agro-industrial wastes. The concept can be used for the production of high-quality mushrooms for edible and medicinal purposes while contributing toward the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 12) on responsible consumption and production of superfoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the need for conversion of wastes to energy for a sustainable power sector and environmental development in Nigeria, to decrease greenhouse gas emissions and to offer incentives for investments in renewable energy sources, and to mitigate the concerns on disposal of hazardous wastes in the country. The study adopts a library-based doctrinal legal research technique with a conceptual approach, relying on existing literature. It explores the potency of existing laws and other legal provisions binding on the practice of waste management to power in Nigeria. Also, it carries out a comparative appraisal of the renewable system through organic wastes to electricity in other countries. The key finding of the study is that if practical measures are taken by the Nigerian government to control waste disposal, it will minimise wastes from the various sources in conformity with the legal and regulatory requirements and this can be utilised to generate electricity. The study proposes a model for converting wastes to electricity to sustain the ever-intensifying demands for energy and to combat ecological issues in Nigeria. The research concludes with recommendations for the fusion of regulations and non-regulatory incentives for conversion of wastes to electricity in Nigeria's power sector and advocates coherent legal framework on sources of energy with stringent enforcement of energy laws for stable electricity generation and sustainability in Nigeria's power sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents a numerical investigation of steam gasification of hydrochar derived from fruit wastes. Four fruit wastes, apple chip pomace, grape pomace, rotten apple, and apple juice pomace, were used as feedstocks. Aspen Plus was used to simulate the gasification process. The syngas composition, hydrogen to CO ratio (H 2 /CO), CO to CO 2 ratio (CO/CO 2), and heating value (HHV) of the resulting syngas were analyzed. Results show that hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) increases the CO and reduces the CO 2 content of the syngas after gasification. Accordingly, H 2 /CO reduces, and CO/CO 2 increases after HTC treatment. Hydrothermal treatment also improves the HHV of the syngas. The obtained HHV of syngas from hydrochar gasification ranged from 10.1 to 15.3 MJ/Nm3 depending on the process parameters. Additionally, effects of process parameters were studied. Increasing the steam to biomass ratio (SBR) leads to a higher H 2 /CO, enriching the syngas with hydrogen (up to 64.7 vol%). Higher SBR also lowers the CO/CO 2 ratio due to the consumption of CO and a rise in CO 2. HHV increases with increasing pressure, and hydrochars exhibit more changes in HHV than raw feedstocks. The reaction temperature contributes to an increase in the fraction of CO in the syngas (up to 39.6 vol%). Although hydrogen increased initially with temperature, a slight reduction was observed for the gas at elevated temperatures, reducing the H 2 /CO ratio and increasing the CO/CO 2 ratio. • A numerical study of steam gasification of hydrochar from fruit wastes is performed. • Aspen Plus equilibrium-based model is used to simulate the gasification process. • Effect of hydrothermal carbonization temperature on syngas composition is studied. • The composition, H 2 /CO, CO/CO 2 , and the heating value of product gas are computed. • Effects of steam to biomass ratio, temperature and pressure are investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The combined mixture process variable approach for optimization and prediction of oil yield in co‐pyrolysis of polymeric wastes was investigated in this study using I‐optimal design. The components mixture investigated were low‐density polyethylene (LDPE), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), whereas the process variables were temperature and residence time. Thirty experimental runs were developed using the I‐optimality criterion to investigate the effect of interaction between the mixture and process parameters on oil recovery from co‐pyrolysis of the polymeric wastes. The data obtained were used to generate a model equation, and analysis of variance was used to estimate the significance of the model. The model was significant with a P value < 0.0001, the R2 value of 0.9980, adjusted R2 of 0.9949, and predicted R2 of 0.9201. Optimized oil yield showed close match between actual and predicted responses with a desirability factor of 0.999. The predicted mixture compositions and operating parameters for the optimum oil yield were 52.86% for LDPE, 47.15% for PS, and 0% for PET at 471.07°C and 115.25 minutes. The chemical compositions of the pyrolysis oil at the optimum conditions were hydrocarbons in the carbon range between C6 and C25, with physical properties comparable to conventional diesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the sustainable production of Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) mushroom using agro-industrial wastes. The substrate of Shiitake (80% rice straw + 20% sugar cane bagasse) was moistened with 0 (freshwater as control), 50, and 100% concentrations of secondarily treated dairy plant and sugar mill wastewaters (DPW and SMW). After proper sterilization, the cultivation was carried out under controlled environmental conditions using the bag log method for 100 days. The results revealed that DPW and SMW moistening significantly (p < 0.05) increased the nutrient levels of the formulated substrate which later gave better mushroom yield. The highest Shiitake mycelial coverage (90.70 ± 1.47 and 88.65 ± 1.82%), yield (186.00 ± 3.10 and 176.09 ± 4.12 g/kg fresh substrate), biological efficiency (80.00 ± 0.58 and 75.73 ± 0.93%), total phenol (2.84 ± 0.03 and 2.69 ± 0.03 mg/g), ascorbic acid (0.34 ± 0.03 and 0.32 ± 0.02 mg/g), and β-carotene (2.48 ± 0.06 and 2.29 ± 0.02 μg/g) contents with the minimum time taken for spawn running (60 ± 1 days) was observed using a 50% concentration treatment of both DPW and SMW, respectively. Besides this, the kinetic studies using a first-order-based model showed acceptable accuracy in predicting the rate constant for substrate delignification and heavy metal uptake by Shiitake mushroom. These findings suggest a novel approach for sustainable mushroom cultivation using agro-industrial wastes. The concept can be used for the production of high-quality mushrooms for edible and medicinal purposes while contributing toward the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 12) on responsible consumption and production of superfoods.

• The physical and chemical characteristics of the SCG are presented in detail. • Gasification of SCG in a semi-FzBR reactor using steam/CO 2 atmosphere is discussed. • Effect of S/B and CO 2 /B ratio on the syngas quantity and quality are described. Coffee is the second popular drink and second traded item in the world. Unfortunately, the process of coffee beverage preparation generates a huge solid waste, which is about 650 kg/ton or 2 kg wet spent coffee grounds (SCG) per 1 kg of soluble coffee. The high carbon content, high heating value, low ash, and negligible sulfur content of SCG makes it an alternative fuel source through thermochemical conversion. Therefore, this study investigated the thermochemical conversion of SCG with or without the presence of CO 2 and/or steam gasification medium in the semi-fluidized bed reactor. Elemental composition, calorific value, proximate analysis, and thermal decomposition characteristics were analysed. Surface morphology of SCG was also carried by field emission scanning electron microscopy. The chemical characterization has shown about 50% C and more than 7% H 2 content, nearly 23% HHV, and about 70% VOC, and 20% fixed carbon. The gasification process in the presence of CO 2 and steam atmosphere also showed about 95% carbon conversion and nearly 72% cold gas efficiency. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generation of alum sludge (AS) at drinking water treatment plants represents an environmental liability and adds to the cost of water purification. Consequently, this study explored the feasibility of using low and high carbon containing alum sludge from two water treatment plants to synthesize zeolite LTA. The hypothesis was that zeolite LTA synthesis was dependant upon alum sludge source and that a range of strategies may be required to optimize zeolite crystallinity. Zeolite characteristics such as morphology, phase composition, crystallinity, and particle size distribution were recorded. "One pot" hydrothermal synthesis of precursor gel with molar composition 4.2Na 2 O:Al 2 O 3 :1.2SiO 2 :168H 2 O at 80°C for 3 hr resulted in 25 and 46 wt.% zeolite LTA from high and low carbonaceous sludge, respectively. Prior to hydrothermal reaction stage it was discovered that ageing of the gel, addition of zeolite LTA seeds, ultrasonic treatment and calcination all promoted zeolite LTA formation. Calcination of the alum sludge at 700°C for 2 hr before hydrothermal synthesis resulted in particle size reduction and the highest amount of crystalline zeolite LTA: 79 wt.% from low carbon sludge and 65 wt.% from high carbon sludge. Notably, the zeolite crystallinity reported in this study was the higher than previous studies on this topic. The outlined approach may allow value adding of alum waste and produce a commodity which could be used locally by the water treatment plant as a water softener. Image, graphical abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study is focused to assess the efficiency of avocado fruit peel waste in different in vitro activities in order to explore the possibility of utilizing waste as a value-added product in various applications. Preliminary phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, tannins, glycosides, and absence of sterols, saponins, resins, and thiols. Remarkable free radicals scavenging ability was observed in all the tested radicals namely, DPPH.(IC50 = 71.96 ± 0.44 μg/ml), nitric oxide (NO.) (IC50 = 149.46 μg/ml), hydroxyl (.OH) (107.91 ± 3.59 μg/ml), Superoxide (O2.−) (IC50 = 103.05 ± 2.19 μg/ml). In the antibacterial assay, the zone of inhibition was recorded as 9.5 ± 0.5, 12.0 ± 1.21, 7.5 ± 0.35, 6.0 ± 0.5 and 10.0 ± 1.0 for the strains of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas spp., Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus spp. respectively. The Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) profiling indicated the existence of resilient functional groups and the gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) profiling was exhibited the presence of eighteen major components highly accountable for its pharmaceutical activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Not only are microwaves notorious in food heating, but they exhibit interesting properties in different domains including chemical engineering. Their ability to concentrate heat transfer inside dielectric materials enhances process efficiency and permits high heating rates. Nonetheless, their effect on reactions is still controversial. While some researchers believe in non‐thermal effects due to the efficient conversion of microwave energy to enhance reactions without heat dissipation, others assert that microwave frequencies are not high enough to excite molecular bonds. In this study, paper cups pyrolysis is achieved in electrical and microwave TGA using two heating modes. The effect of microwaves on the kinetics of paper cups pyrolysis is shown to depend on the heating regime: at a moderate heating rate, microwave pyrolysis started at a lower temperature, while the pyrolysis in the electrical and microwave TGA have similar kinetic parameters at high heating conditions. This difference is linked with reaction mechanisms. At moderate heating conditions, cellulose decomposes first to an intermediate compound then to final products. The intermediate has a short reaction time and interacts with the microwave. Hence, hot spots at the molecular scale are generated in a short amount of time below the detectable limits of existing temperature measurements media. At a high heating rate, the decomposition of cellulose is direct and no effect is observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In work, data from carbonization of the eight main municipal solid waste components (carton, fabric, kitchen waste, paper, plastic, rubber, paper/aluminum/polyethylene (PAP/AL/PE) composite packaging pack, wood) carbonized at 300–500 °C for 20–60 min were used to build regression models to predict the biochar properties (proximate and ultimate analysis) for particular components. These models were then combined in general models that predict the properties of char made from mixed waste components depending on pyrolysis temperature, residence time, and share of municipal solid waste components. Next, the general models were compared with experimental data (two mixtures made from the above-mentioned components carbonized at the same conditions). The comparison showed that most of the proposed general models had a determination coefficient (R2) over 0.6, and the best prediction was found for the prediction of biochar mass yield (R2 = 0.9). All models were implemented into a spreadsheet to provide a simple tool to determine the potential of carbonization of municipal solid waste/refuse solid fuel based on a local mix of major components.

This paper addresses the solar thermochemical conversion of biomass or waste feedstocks based on pyro-gasification for the clean production of high-value and energy-intensive fuels. The utilization of solar energy for supplying the required process heat is attractive to lower the dependence of gasification processes on conventional energy resources and to reduce emissions of CO2 and other pollutants for the production of high-value chemical synthetic fuels (syngas). Using concentrated solar energy to drive the endothermal reactions further allows producing more syngas with a higher gas quality, since it has not been contaminated by combustion products, while saving biomass resources. The solar-driven process is thus a sustainable and promising alternative route, enabling syngas yield enhancement and CO2 mitigation, thereby potentially outperforming the performance of conventional processes for syngas production. This review presents relevant research studies in the field and provides the scientific/technical knowledge and background necessary to address the different aspects of the solar gasification process. An overview of the available solar concentrating technologies and their performance metrics is first introduced. The solar gasifier concepts and designs that were studied from lab to industrial scale are presented, along with their main benefits and limitations. The different management strategies proposed to deal with solar energy variations are also outlined, as well as the major pilot-scale applications and large-scale system level simulations. A specific emphasis is provided on the spouted bed technology that appears promising for the gasification process. Finally, the main modeling approaches of pyro-gasification and kinetics for simulation of gasifiers are described. This study thus provides a detailed overview of the efforts made to enhance the thermochemical performance of solar-assisted biomass gasification for synthetic fuel production.

The present study focused to evaluate the utility of avocado fruit peel waste material for the development of activated carbon and ZnO nanoparticles for water treatment applications. Green synthesized activated carbon and ZnO nanoparticles using avocado fruit peel as a substrate was characterized using different techniques including FESEM, TEM, EDX, XRD and FTIR. In addition, further investigation was carried out to find their efficiency of its application for removal of selective dyes such as Congo red, Crystal violet, Saffranin, Methylene orange and Malachite green in aqueous solution through adsorption and photocatalytic activity respectively. 99.9% dye removal was observed in the column experiment condition, where, 100 mg L−1 concentrations of selective dye solutions were passed through the column (7.9 × 1.2 cm) filled with 50 mg of synthesized activated carbon at the flow rate of 6 drops/min. Green synthesized ZnO nanoparticles exhibited efficient photocatalytic activity of 70–98% against above mentioned selective dyes under the sunlight irradiation for the experimental condition which contains 20 mg of ZnO-NPs and 50 mL (30 mg L−1) of each dye solution. Further studies are recommended to elucidate the detailed mechanism of this avocado fruit peel powder in proposed materials conversion and using these materials as an agent for dye removal applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fixed bed adsorption is an economical method of removing harmful gases, such as SO2 and CO2, from industrial flue gas. It is possible to reduce the cost and environmental impact of fixed bed adsorption by repurposing waste materials to be used as adsorbents, such as semi-coke derived from oil shale, a possible alternative to fossil fuels. Fixed bed adsorption systems are difficult and time consuming to characterize experimentally, especially on large scales. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can expand researchers understaning of how these systems are affected by material selection and operating conditions. This study uses CFD to characterize fixed bed adsorption of SO2 and CO2. The research primarily focuses on SO2 adsorption on semi-coke, with an extension to CO2 adsorption on commercial carbon. The CFD modeling was able to describe the amount of the pollutants each material was able to adsorb over time based on a variety of inputs on a larger scale than experimental research. The model was further able to give more detailed comparisons of materials and operating conditions than the experiments, particularly the SO2 and semi-coke system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Biomass based waste can generally be harmful if unused since it naturally decomposes and emits greenhouse gases. In addition, the disposal of these types of waste by burning usually produces carbon dioxide. Both the greenhouse gases and the carbon dioxide will in turn accumulate in the eco system and seriously impact the surrounding environment. Nevertheless, such types of waste can be beneficial if thermally treated in controlled procedures. In line with this trend, this study is directed toward the conversion of some types of solid waste into activated carbons. Different parameters namely; type of chemical activator, temperature and time of reaction as well as the rate of nitrogen gas flow, are studied during the production of activated carbons structures. Optimization of the most proper type of waste (among the tested samples) in producing activated carbon, based on the collected surface characteristics of Brinier–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis, was determined at the first place. The texture, structural and thermal characteristics of the optimized activated carbon and its sub-driven acid sites (tri-fluoro methane sulfonic acid) attached structure were determined via the different tools of analysis. In practical, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) were utilized during the characterization of both blank and functionalized activated carbons. These two structures were then applied as catalysts for the production of bio-fuel start material (glucose) from waste cellulose. Comparable conversion rates, came up to 56%, could be attained by the utilized catalysts in this study with a promising selectivity towards the glucose production. Highlights • Two types of solid wastes were used to generate activated carbon structure. • Effect of various chemical activators on the properties of carbon was studied. • Characterization of the prepared materials was done. • Catalytic hydrolysis of waste feedstock to produce bio-glucose was attained. • Successful catalytic conversion with elevated selectivity had taken place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Bioaugmentation with C. butyricum enhances the non-sterile H 2 production. • Microwave pretreatment (MW) drastically reduces food waste (FW) microbial counts. • Bioaugmentation + MW of FW improves H 2 productivity up to 406.2 ± 8.1 mL (L h)−1. • Maximum potential energy recovery is estimated to be 746.3 ± 77.0 kJ kg VS −1. • 58 g acetate kg VS −1 and 113 g butyrate kg VS −1 are recovered as byproducts. This work targeted the energy recovery from food waste (FW), aiming at the implementation of a potentially participative process of FW conditioning before the non-sterile biological conversion to hydrogen (H 2). Food waste conversion was initially performed under sterile conditions, achieving a maximum H 2 productivity of 249.5 ± 24.6 mL H 2 (L h)−1 and a total H 2 production to 4.1 ± 0.2 L L−1. The non-sterile operation was implemented as a way of process simplification, but the total H 2 production decreased by 59% due to the FW native microorganisms. To counteract this effect, FW was submitted to acid, microwave (MW), and combined acid and MW pretreatment. The application of 4 min MW, 550 W, efficiently controlled the FW microbial counts. The Clostridium butyricum bioaugmented conversion of MW-pretreated FW accelerated the H 2 production to 406.2 ± 8.1 mL (L h)−1 and peaked the total H 2 production and conversion yield to 4.6 ± 0.5 L L−1 and 234.6 ± 55.6 mL (g sugar)−1, respectively. These results exceeded in 63, 12 and 4%, respectively, the H 2 productivity, total production and sugar conversion yield obtained under sterile conditions, and are encouraging for the future implementation of increasingly responsible waste valorisation practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The decrease in the calorific value of refuse-derived fuel (RDF) is an unintended outcome of the progress made toward more sustainable waste management. Plastics and paper separation and recycling leads to the overall decrease in waste’s calorific value, further limiting its applicability for thermal treatment. Pyrolysis has been proposed to densify energy in RDF and generate carbonized solid fuel (CSF). The challenge is that the feedstock composition of RDF is variable and site-specific. Therefore, the optimal pyrolysis conditions have to be established every time, depending on feedstock composition. In this research, we developed a model to predict the higher heating value (HHV) of the RDF composed of eight morphological refuse groups after low-temperature pyrolysis in CO2 (300–500 °C and 60 min) into CSF. The model considers cardboard, fabric, kitchen waste, paper, plastic, rubber, PAP/AL/PE (paper/aluminum/polyethylene) composite packaging pack, and wood, pyrolysis temperature, and residence time. The determination coefficients (R2) and Akaike information criteria were used for selecting the best model among four mathematical functions: (I) linear, (II) second-order polynomial, (III) factorial regression, and (IV) quadratic regression. For each RDF waste component, among these four models, the one best fitted to the experimental data was chosen; then, these models were integrated into the general model that predicts the HHV of CSF from the blends of RDF. The general model was validated experimentally by the application to the RDF blends. The validation revealed that the model explains 70–75% CSF HHV data variability. The results show that the optimal pyrolysis conditions depend on the most abundant waste in the waste mixture. High-quality CSF can be obtained from wastes such as paper, carton, plastic, and rubber when processed at relatively low temperatures (300 °C), whereas wastes such as fabrics and wood require higher temperatures (500 °C). The developed model showed that it is possible to achieve the CSF with the highest HHV value by optimizing the pyrolysis of RDF with the process temperature, residence time, and feedstock blends pretreatment.

Solar thermochemical gasification is a promising solution for the clean production of low-emission synthetic fuels. It offers the possibility to upgrade various biomasses and waste feedstocks and further provides an efficient way to sustainably store solar energy into high-value and energy-intensive chemical fuels. In this work, a novel continuously-fed solar steam gasifier was studied using beechwood and solid recovered fuels (SRF) particles. Solar-only and hybrid solar/autothermal gasification experiments were performed at high temperatures to assess the performance of the reactor and its flexibility in converting various types of feedstocks. The hybrid operation was considered to increase the solar reactor temperature when the solar power input is not sufficient thanks to partial feedstock oxy-combustion. The hybrid solar process is thus a sustainable alternative option outperforming the conventional gasification processes for syngas production. Wood and waste particles solar conversion was successfully achieved, yielding high-quality syngas and suitable reactor performance, with Cold Gas Efficiencies (CGE) up to 1.04 and 1.13 respectively during the allothermal operation. The hybrid process allowed operating with a lower solar power input, but the H2 and CO yields noticeably declined. SRF gasification experiments suffered furthermore from ash melting/agglomeration issues and injection instabilities that undermined the continuity of the process. This study demonstrated the solar reactor flexibility in converting both biomass and waste feedstocks into syngas performed in continuous feeding operation. The experimental outcomes showed the feasibility of operating the reactor in both allothermal (solar-only) and hybrid allothermal/autothermal (combined solar and oxy-combustion heating) for continuous syngas production with high yields and energy conversion efficiencies.

Avocado wastewater (AWW) is the largest by-product of cold pressed avocado oil. The aim of this study was to valorise AWW by converting it into spray dried powder for use as a lipid peroxidation inhibiting food preservative. To increase the powder yield of AWW, addition of carriers and spray drying parameters (temperature and feed flow rate) were optimised. The highest AWW powder yield was 49%, and was obtained using 5% whey protein concentrate (WPC), with a feed flow rate of 5.8 g/min and an inlet drying temperature of 160 °C. The liquid chromatography mass spectrophotometry (LC-MS) analysis showed that AWW encapsulated with WPC had the highest retention of α-tocopherol (181.6 mg/kg powder). AWW with 5% WPC was tested as a preservative in pork fat cooked at 180 °C for 15 min. Thiobarbaturic acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay showed that the effectiveness of AWW powder was comparable to commercial additives such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), and sodium erythorbate (E316).