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Monitoring programs are preferably risk-based, which allows focusing on the most relevant human health risks. In this study, a risk matrix was used to identify those chemical hazards that have the highest human health risk for the following spices and herbs: paprika/chilli powder, black pepper, nutmeg, basil, thyme, and parsley. Both the probability of occurrence and the severity of the hazard were assessed for 36 chemical compounds and classified into low, medium, high, and severe. Probability of occurrence was evaluated based on available monitoring data and RASFF notifications as well as possibilities for economic adulteration. Severity was assessed based on available toxicological reference values and classification of carcinogenicity. The results demonstrated that the mycotoxins aflatoxins and ochratoxin A, the pesticides chlorpyrifos and triazophos, and the dye Sudan I posed the highest human health risk for spices and herbs. These compounds should, therefore, have an increased monitoring frequency in these products.

A qualitative spreadsheet model has been developed for ranking feed ingredients on the basis of the potential risk of exceeding existing guidance or maximum levels in the EU for a certain contaminant, and the potential consequence of the presence of this contaminant on the health of animals and/or humans. The approach was based on the general concept of risk, being frequency times consequences of presence of the contaminant. Contamination of compound feeds due to presence of the contaminant in feed ingredients was estimated, per animal category, by: annual volumes of feed ingredients used for feed production, stratified per country of origin; the portion of each ingredient in compound feed formulations used for various animal categories; and the potential contamination of an ingredient per country of origin. The consequences of the contamination were accounted for by two consequence factors, both estimated per animal category: one for the potential impact of the contaminant on the health of the target animal, and one for the impact on human health, related to the possible formation of residues in animal derived food products.The use of the model was demonstrated by its application to the presence of dioxins and dl-PCBs in compound feed for farm animals produced in the Netherlands in 2013 and 2014. Model results include the relative contribution, based on relative ranking scores, of each feed ingredient to the chance of exceeding limits and potential consequences on animal and human health. Feed ingredients ranking highest were palm oil, other fats and oils, dried products like bakery products, sunflower expeller/extracted, maize, and fish meal.The model can be used by risk managers in feed industry and by governmental bodies for supporting decision making on the optimal allocation of resources for control of ingredients for compound feed production for presence of contaminants.

Monitoring of dairy products should preferably focus on the most relevant food safety hazards in the dairy supply chain. For this purpose, the possible presence of microbiological, chemical, and physical hazards as well as trends in the dairy supply chain that may affect their presence were assessed. A literature review was combined with available data from EFSA, RASFF, and the Dutch monitoring program on chemical hazards as well as expert information. This study revealed that microbiological hazards are encountered more frequently in dairy products than chemical and physical hazards. Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, and human pathogenic Escherichia coli were identified as the most important microbiological hazards in dairy products. Soft and semisoft cheeses are most frequently associated with L. monocytogenes and S. aureus enterotoxins, whereas raw milk is most frequently associated with human pathogenic E. coli and Campylobacter spp., Cronobacter spp., and Salmonella spp. are the microbiological hazards of most concern in powdered infant formula. Based on literature, monitoring, and RASFF data, the most relevant chemical hazards in dairy products are aflatoxin M1, dioxins, and dioxin-like compounds and residues of veterinary drugs. Chemical hazards primarily occur at the dairy farm and may accumulate during further processing. The most relevant physical hazards are metal, glass, and plastic particles introduced during processing. Analysis of trends in the near future revealed that increased milk production is seen as most relevant in relation to food safety. Other trends affecting food safety are climate change and changes at the farm level, which aim to improve animal welfare and environmental sustainability.

Crops contaminated with fungal mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) are often downgraded or removed from the food chain. This study aimed to evaluate the tolerance and accumulation of AFB1 in two insect species to determine whether they could be used to retain condemned mycotoxin contaminated crops in the food chain. First, instar black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens, BSF) and yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor, YMW) were fed poultry feed spiked with AFB1 and formulated to contain levels of 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, 0.10, 0.25, and up to 0.5 mg/kg dry feed. Poultry feed without any additions and feed with only the solvent added served as controls. The AFB1 in the feed did not affect survival and body weight in the BSF and YMW larvae (p > 0.10), indicating a high tolerance to aflatoxin B1 in both species. Furthermore, AFB1 and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) were below the detection limit (0.10 µg/kg) in BSF larvae, whereas the YMW had AFB1 levels that were approximately 10% of the European Union’s legal limit for feed materials and excreted AFM1. It is concluded that both BSF larvae and YMW have a high AFB1 tolerance and do not accumulate AFB1.

Washing fresh produce with potable water helps to remove microorganisms, providing about a 1- to 2-log reduction, but this process can also pose an opportunity for cross-contamination of bacteria in the washing tank. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of three chemical sanitizers, sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, and a silver-copper solution on the reduction of S. Typhimurium and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) E. coli as well as to evaluate the impact bacterial cell history and water quality had on sanitizer efficacy. This was investigated with three scenarios representing different contamination routes and history of cells: (i) on starved and non-starved cells in potable water, (ii) on starved and non-starved cells in lettuce wash water and on lettuce leaf punches, and (iii) on non-starved cells in organically loaded process wash water (PWW). Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and chlorine dioxide (ClO2) were more effective in preventing cross-contamination in the potable water than the silver-copper solution. Starved and non-starved bacterial cells displayed minor differences in their susceptibility to sanitizing agents in the (i) potable water and (ii) lettuce wash water demonstrating that other conditions greater influenced sanitizer efficacy. Particularly, the organic load of the water, wash water temperature, and pathogen attachment and release from the produce were shown to affect a sanitizer's efficacy during washing. Furthermore, results emphasize that chemical sanitizer use should focus more on wash water disinfection, rather than produce decontamination, to prevent pathogenic cross-contamination during processing. Future research should investigate the feasibility of ClO2 application during pilot-scale processing.

This study aimed to obtain insights into the presence of cadmium, lead, mercury and arsenic in feed materials and feed over time for the purpose of guiding national monitoring. Data from the Dutch feed monitoring programme and from representatives of the feed industry during the period 2007–13 were used. Data covered a variety of feed materials and compound feeds in the Netherlands. Trends in the percentage of samples that exceeded the maximum limit (ML) set by the European Commission, and trends in average, median and 90th percentile concentrations of each of these elements were investigated. Based on the results, monitoring should focus on feed material of mineral origin, feed material of marine origin, especially fish meal, seaweed and algae, as well as feed additives belonging to the functional groups of (1) trace elements (notably cupric sulphate, zinc oxide and manganese oxide for arsenic) and (2) binders and anti-caking agents. Mycotoxin binders are a new group of feed additives that also need attention. For complementary feed it is important to make a proper distinction between mineral and non-mineral feed (lower ML). Forage crops in general do not need high priority in monitoring programmes, although for arsenic grass meal still needs attention.

Insects have potential as a novel source of protein in feed and food production in Europe, provided they can be used safely. To date, limited information is available on the safety of insects, and toxic elements are one of the potential hazards of concern. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the potential accumulation of cadmium, lead and arsenic in larvae of two insect species, Tenebrio molitor (yellow mealworm) and Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly), which seem to hold potential as a source of food or feed. An experiment was designed with 14 treatments, each in triplicate, per insect species. Twelve treatments used feed that was spiked with cadmium, lead or arsenic at 0.5, 1 and 2 times the respective maximum allowable levels (ML) in complete feed, as established by the European Commission (EC). Two of the 14 treatments consisted of controls, using non-spiked feed. All insects per container (replicate) were harvested when the first larva in that container had completed its larval stage. Development time, survival rates and fresh weights were similar over all treatments, except for development time and total live weight of the half of the maximum limit treatment for cadmium of the black soldier fly. Bioaccumulation (bioaccumulation factor > 1) was seen in all treatments (including two controls) for lead and cadmium in black soldier fly larvae, and for the three arsenic treatments in the yellow mealworm larvae. In the three cadmium treatments, concentrations of cadmium in black soldier fly larvae are higher than the current EC maximum limit for feed materials. The same was seen for the 1.0 and 2.0 ML treatments of arsenic in the yellow mealworm larvae. From this study, it can be concluded that if insects are used as feed materials, the maximum limits of these elements in complete feed should be revised per insect species.

Food chains are susceptible to contaminations from food-borne hazards, including pathogens and chemical contaminants. An assessment of the potential product-hazard combinations can be supported by using multiple data sources. The objective of this study was to identify the main trends of food safety hazards in the European spice and herb chain, and then, evaluate how the data sources can be used during each step of a microbiological and a toxicological risk assessment. Thereafter, the possibilities and limitations of the selected data sources for the risk assessment of certain hazards in spices and herbs are examined. European governmental alerting and monitoring data and legislation were examined and evaluated for particular product-hazard combinations. Pathogenic microorganisms, particularly Salmonella spp. and pathogenic Bacillus spp., were identified as a potential concern in black pepper and dried herbs, while mycotoxins like aflatoxin (B1) and ochratoxin A were a probable concern in chilies (including chili powder and cayenne), paprika, and nutmeg. Evaluating multiple, accessible, data sources can support several steps during the risk assessment process as seen for the hazard identification step. Therefore, identifying the potential spice and herb food safety hazards in the chain and other specific data can support risk assessors in compiling a comprehensive risk assessment.

Projected climate change effects will influence primary agricultural systems and thus food security, directly via impacts on yields, and indirectly via impacts on its safety, with mycotoxins considered as crucial hazards. Mycotoxins are produced by a wide variety of fungal species, each having their own characteristics and requirements. The geographic distribution of toxigenic fungi reflects their ecological needs, with thermophilic fungi prevalent at lower latitudes and psychrophiles at the higher latitudes. A resulting gradient of mycotoxin contamination has been repeatedly stressed. Changes in climatic conditions will lead to shifts in the fungal population and the mycotoxin patterns. In general, climate change is expected to increase mycotoxin contamination of crops, but due to the complexity of mycoflora associated to each crop and its interaction with the environment, it appears rash to draw conclusions without specific studies. Very recently first quantitative estimations of impacts of climate change on mycotoxin occurrence have been made. Two studies each applied models of different disciplines including climate projection, crop phenology and fungal/mycotoxin prediction to cereals cultivated in Europe. They were followed by a case study on climate change effects on Alternaria moulds and their mycotoxins in tomato. Results showed that DON contamination of wheat grown in Europe was, in general, expected to increase. However, variation was large, and in some years and some regions a decrease in DON contamination was expected. Regarding aflatoxin contamination of maize grown in Europe, an increase was estimated, mainly in the +2 °C scenario. Two main research gaps were identified related to the (limited) number of existing quantitative models taking into account climate change and their validation in limited areas. Efforts are therefore mandatory to be prepared for future changes and challenges on model validation and limited mycotoxin-crop combinations.

This study aimed to quantify costs and benefits of allergen free food (food not containing ingredients that fall under the European labelling regime) production at a catering business under two scenarios. In scenario 1 the caterer provides information to the consumer regarding the presence of allergens in the meals served, uses allergen free ingredients in preparation of allergen free meals, but does not avoid cross contamination during food preparation. Scenario 2 expands upon scenario 1 as to also include the prevention of cross contamination during preparation of allergen free foods. A stochastic partial budgeting analysis was performed to simulate the costs and benefits in both scenarios, relative to the current situation of providing neither information regarding the presence of allergens nor serving allergen free meals. Costs values were based upon the adaptations necessary to comply with the two scenarios for an on premise catering location. Fixed and variable cost items were identified via literature review, critical inspection of the catering establishment, and expert opinion. Benefit items were identified and quantified via a questionnaire about willingness to pay and willingness to buy at a catering location, according to each scenario. Given the price increase of meals in accordance to the estimated willingness to pay, and using mean values of the distributions of the costs and benefit items, an investment payback time of 8.1 and 7.7 months was estimated for scenarios 1 and 2, respectively. However, with median values of the distributions, both scenarios were not profitable, since monthly net profits were estimated at € -413 and € -636 for scenarios 1 and 2, respectively. If additional costs are not passed on to the consumer, no scenario is profitable. Catering companies can use the methodology and results in their decision making process on serving allergen free foods.

This study investigated the presence of aflatoxin M1 (AfM1) in dairy cows’ milk, given predefined scenarios for milk production, compound feed (CF) contamination with aflatoxin B1 (AfB1), and inclusion rates of ingredients, using Monte Carlo simulation modelling. The model simulated a typical dairy farm in the Netherlands. Six different scenarios were considered, based on two lactation and three CF composition scenarios. AfB1 contamination of the CF was based on results from the Dutch national monitoring programme for AfB1 in feed materials from 2000 until 2010. Monitoring data from feed materials used in CF production for dairy cattle in the Netherlands were used. Additionally, AfB1 contamination data from an incident in maize in 2013 were used. In each scenario, five different transfer equations of AfB1 from feed to AfM1 in the milk were used, and 1000 iterations were run for each scenario. The results showed that under these six scenarios, the weekly farm concentration of AfM1 in milk was above the EC threshold in less than 1% of the iterations, with all five transfer equations considered. However, this increased substantially in weeks when concentrations from the contaminated maize batch were included, and up to 28.5% of the iterations exceeded the EC threshold. It was also observed that an increase in the milk production had a minimal effect on the exceedance of the AfM1 threshold due to an apparent dilution effect. Feeding regimes, including the composition of CF and feeding roughages of dairy cows, should be carefully considered based on the potential AfM1 contamination of the farm’s milk.

There is a pressing need to mobilise the wealth of knowledge from the international mycotoxin research conductedover the past 25-30 years, and to perform cutting-edge research where knowledge gaps still exist. This knowledgeneeds to be integrated into affordable and practical tools for farmers and food processors along the chain inorder to reduce the risk of mycotoxin contamination of crops, feed and food. This is the mission of MyToolBox – a four-year project which has received funding from the European Commission. It mobilises a multi-actorpartnership (academia, farmers, technology small and medium sized enterprises, food industry and policystakeholders) to develop novel interventions aimed at achieving a significant reduction in crop losses due tomycotoxin contamination. Besides a field-to-fork approach, MyToolBox also considers safe use options ofcontaminated batches, such as the efficient production of biofuels. Compared to previous efforts of mycotoxin reduction strategies, the distinguishing feature of MyToolBox is to provide the recommended measures to theend users along the food and feed chain in a web-based MyToolBox platform (e-toolbox). The project focuseson small grain cereals, maize, peanuts and dried figs, applicable to agricultural conditions in the EU and China. Crop losses using existing practices are being compared with crop losses after novel pre-harvest interventionsincluding investigation of genetic resistance to fungal infection, cultural control (e.g. minimum tillage or cropdebris treatment), the use of novel biopesticides suitable for organic farming, competitive biocontrol treatment and development of novel modelling approaches to predict mycotoxin contamination. Research into post-harvestmeasures includes real-time monitoring during storage, innovative sorting of crops using vision-technology, novelmilling technology and studying the effects of baking on mycotoxins at an industrial scale.

Many of our food products have undergone a heat-treatment before consumption, either at home or at the food industry. Heat treatments not only bring out desired characteristics of the food products such as flavour, texture, taste and safety aspects but also leads to the formation of undesired compounds that may have negative impacts for human health. Such undesired compounds that are generated from the Maillard reaction are neo-formed food contaminants (NFC). NFC are present in many common heat-processed foods, such as potatoes-based products, cereal-based products, baby foods, and dairy products. Therefore, effective mitigation measures are being developed to minimize the generation of such undesired compounds while maintaining the organoleptic attributes of the food products as consumer’s demands. This thesis aimed at understanding the mechanistic pathways for the formation of three neo-formed food contaminants: acrylamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), and NƐ-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML), using multireponse kinetic modelling. First, the topic of the Maillard reaction, occurrence and human exposure to the three NFC in heated foods, and multiresponse kinetic modelling is introduced. Then, scientific literature on analytical methods, formation pathways, occurrence in processed foods, and health impacts of CML was reviewed. Based on the literature, an experiment was set up to understand the formation pathway for CML in caseinate-lactose/glucose solutions, each heated at 120oC and 130oC. According to the best fitting mechanistic model, the formation of CML in the two model solutions originated from the reaction between lactose/glucose and lysine residues via the Amadori rearrangement product formation. Moreover, glucose and lactose were degraded via Lobry de Bruyn-Alberda van Ekenstein (LA) arrangement. CML seems to be not thermally stable, and may thus not be an optimal indicator for heat damage of foods. Another experiment was done for gaining insights into the form

In order to assist celiac disease (CD) patients in making safe food choices, gluten-free food products are labelled as such. The exact meaning of the gluten-free label differs throughout the world. This paper discusses the different thresholds that are currently used to label products gluten-free and compares tolerable gluten levels to the gluten levels CD patients can be exposed to with these thresholds in place. Currently, the most applied gluten threshold to label products gluten-free does not protect the most vulnerable patients. Therefore, we propose to lower the threshold for products with a gluten-free label to 3ppm gluten.