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Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) are popular in vocabulary software because they can be scored automatically and are compatible with many input devices (e.g., touchscreens). Answering MCQs is beneficial for learning, especially when learners retrieve knowledge from memory to evaluate plausible answer alternatives. However, such retrieval may not always occur (e.g., with easy-to-guess answers). Therefore, we tested whether we could optimize MCQs for retrieval practice with a "stepwise display," which presents the question before the answer options. This creates an opportunity for cued recall. In an experimental classroom study (N = 75) and three online experiments with adult participants (N = 45, N = 77, and N = 79), participants practiced vocabulary with either standard MCQs or stepwise MCQs: In standard MCQs, a word was presented with three possible translations; in stepwise MCQs, it was shown for 4 s before the translations appeared. In three of the four experiments (Experiments 1, 3a, and 3b), stepwise MCQs enhanced retention significantly compared to standard MCQs, measured by a posttest several days after practice. Benefits of stepwise MCQs were found for different translation directions (Experiments 1 and 3) and both with easy-to-guess answers (noncompetitive answer options, Experiment 1) and hard-to-guess answers (competitive answer options, Experiment 3). However, the effect was most robust for questions with noncompetitive answer options (Experiments 1, 3a, and 3b) and for learners who reported trying to retrieve the answer from memory during the stepwise display (Experiments 1 and 3). Moreover, retention was generally enhanced by competitive, hard-to-guess answer options (Experiments 3a and 3b). Overall, a stepwise display is a promising and easy-to-implement manipulation to optimize MCQs for retrieval practice.

Retrieval practice of isolated words (e.g., with flashcards) enhances foreign vocabulary learning. However, vocabulary is often encountered in context. We investigated whether retrieval opportunities also enhance contextualized word learning. In two within-subjects experiments, participants encoded 24 foreign words and then read a story to further strengthen word knowledge. The story contained eight target words in a "retrieval context," which required participants to recall word meaning from memory to understand the text (e.g., "She borrowed aknyga"), and eight target words in an "inference context" from which meaning could be "inferred" (e.g., "She read aknyga" [book]). After 1 to 2 days, a posttest measured word retention. Reading the words in either the retrieval or inference context increased retention, compared to control words not included in the story. Moreover, in Experiment 1, retention was significantly higher in the inference than in the retrieval condition. In Experiment 2, in which encoding before reading was more extensive and feedback was available, no differences in retention were found between the inference and retrieval + feedback condition (both increased retention, compared to control words). Overall, the findings suggest that the benefits of retrieval may be less pronounced during incidental, contextualized learning than during intentional exercises and that retrieval success must be considered when adding retrieval opportunities to contextualized learning. Under low retrieval success, the better comprehension afforded by an informative context may outweigh the benefits of retrieval opportunities (Exp.1). Yet even when retrieval success was enhanced and feedback was added (Exp. 2), retrieval opportunities were only as beneficial as exposure to rich contextual information.

Practicing retrieval of vocabulary items from memory (e.g., with flashcard software or practice tests) is an effective study strategy to remember vocabulary over time. Retrieval practice is often implemented in digital learning environments that increasingly include multimedia (i.e., combining textual and pictorial information). However, it is unknown how multimedia design affects the benefits of retrieval. Therefore, the present study tested the effect of adding images during retrieval practice on students' learning, affective-motivational outcomes, and judgments of learning. We experimentally manipulated the presence and timing of images during retrieval practice of foreign vocabulary in three classroom experiments with students in secondary education. Across experiments, students' vocabulary recall on a posttest (1 to 4 days after practice) was weaker after practice with images that helped them retrieve the answer, compared with practice without images (Experiments 2 and 3) and compared with practice with images that appeared after the retrieval attempt (Experiments 1 and 3). Images enhanced feelings of competence but not enjoyment of practice. The majority of students recognized the negative effects of images on their learning only when the images clearly revealed the answer (Experiment 1) but--incorrectly--considered images that provided partial hints about the answer to be helpful (Experiments 2 and 3). Moreover, students consistently overestimated how much they learned with images that helped them retrieve the answer. During retrieval practice of vocabulary words, informative images are thus potentially harmful and students have limited insight into these effects.

Learning new vocabulary from context typically requires multiple encounters during which word meaning can be retrieved from memory or inferred from context. We compared the effect of memory retrieval and context inferences on short- and long-term retention in three experiments. Participants studied novel words and then practiced the words either in an uninformative context that required the retrieval of word meaning from memory ("I need the 'funguo'") or in an informative context from which word meaning could be inferred ("I want to unlock the door: I need the 'funguo'"). The informative context facilitated word comprehension during practice. However, later recall of word form and meaning and word recognition in a new context were better after successful retrieval practice and retrieval practice with feedback than after context-inference practice. These findings suggest benefits of retrieval during contextualized vocabulary learning whereby the uninformative context enhanced word retention by triggering memory retrieval.

Retrieving information from memory improves recall accuracy more than continued studying, but this testing effect often only becomes visible over time. In contrast, the present study documents testing effects on recallspeedboth immediately after practice and after a delay. A total of 40 participants learned the translation of 100 Swahili words and then further restudied the words with translations or retrieved the translations from memory during testing. As in previous experiments, recall accuracy was higher for restudied words than for tested words immediately after practice, but higher for tested words after 7 days. Response times for correct answers, however, showed a different result: Learners were faster to recall tested words than restudied words both immediately after practice and after 7 days. These results are interpreted in light of recent suggestions that testing selectively strengthens cue–response associations. An additional outcome was that testing effects on recall accuracy were related to perceived retrieval success during practice. When several practice retrievals were successful, testing effects on recall accuracy were already significant immediately after practice. Together with the reaction time data, this supports recent models that attribute changes in testing effects over time to limited item retrievability during practice. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]