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Because the functions of the subsurface are hidden from view, its important role in society is often ignored or taken for granted. The subsurface is, however, an essential part of the global ecosystem with important contributions to human well-being. Geodiversity is an important characteristic in this respect. Material supply is the more obvious role of the subsurface with projections of a doubling of global material use in 2060 as compared to 2017. Moreover, creating underground spaces and infrastructure are gaining importance in the urban environment. The main reason for the inadequate protection of geodiversity is the lack of a comprehensive and integrative framework. Linking socio-economic activities to biophysical system characteristics of the subsurface is facilitated by the geosystem services approach. Sustainable urban development strategies require including geodiversity in decision-making on human well-being and setting conditions for land use change. Spatial plans and decisions on the use of natural endowments should look at processes over much longer timeframes. In this paper, we explore the links between human well-being and the subsurface with an emphasis on the role of geodiversity. We set out a methodological framework and describe possible long term three-dimensional land use planning consequences for sustainable utilization of the subsurface. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid environmental change, natural resource overconsumption and increasing concerns about ecological sustainability have led to the development of 'Essential Variables' (EVs). EVs are harmonized data products to inform policy and to enable effective management of natural resources by monitoring global changes. Recent years have seen the instigation of new EVs beyond those established for climate, oceans and biodiversity (ECVs, EOVs and EBVs), including Essential Geodiversity Variables (EGVs). EGVs aim to consistently quantify and monitor heterogeneity of Earth-surface and subsurface abiotic features, including geology, geomorphology, hydrology and pedology. Here we assess the status and future development of EGVs to better incorporate geodiversity into policy and sustainable management of natural resources. Getting EGVs operational requires better consensus on defining geodiversity, investments into a governance structure and open platform for curating the development of EGVs, advances in harmonizing in situ measurements and linking heterogeneous databases, and development of open and accessible computational workflows for global digital mapping using machine-learning techniques. Cross-disciplinary collaboration and partnerships with governmental and private organizations are needed to ensure the successful development and uptake of EGVs across science and policy. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

Geodiversity and geosystem services are confronting global threats. However, the majority of conservation strategies tend to overlook the geological component within ecosystems. The existing literature centres on biodiversity, ecosystem services and their economic valuation. In this paper, we conduct a systematic literature review to identify the gap in the assessment of geological diversity, pinpointing areas where scientific contributions are needed to safeguard geological resources. Our findings reveal a concentration of studies assessing geodiversity in European and Asian countries. While the majority of the reviewed papers emphasizes the recreational features and associated values of geological resources, promoting geotourism and recognizing its potential for economic growth, there is a significant oversight concerning the impact of tourism on geological resources. Existing assessments predominantly focus on visitors' perceptions and preferences, sidelining the inhabitants' perspective and their crucial roles in the conservation of geodiversity. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Over the past decades, significant efforts have been invested in the development of push-in technology for site characterization and monitoring for geotechnical and environmental purposes and have especially been undertaken in the Netherlands and Germany. These technologies provide the opportunity for faster, cheaper, and collection of more reliable subsurface data. However, to maximize the technology both from a development and implementation point of view, it is necessary to have an overview of the areas suitable for the application of this type of technology. Such an overview is missing and cannot simply be read from existing maps and material. This paper describes the development of a map showing the feasibility or applicability of Direct Push/Cone Penetrometer Technology (DPT/CPT) in Europe which depends on the subsurface and its extremely varying properties throughout Europe. Subsurface penetrability is dependent on a range of factors that have not been mapped directly or can easily be inferred from existing databases, especially the maximum depth reachable would be of interest. Among others, it mainly depends on the geology, the soil mechanical properties, the type of equipment used as well as soil-forming processes. This study starts by looking at different geological databases available at the European scale. Next, a scheme has been developed linking geological properties mapped to geotechnical properties to determine basic penetrability categories. From this, a map of soil penetrability is developed and presented. Validating the output by performing field tests was beyond the scope of this study, but for the country of the Netherlands, this map has been compared against a database containing actual cone penetrometer depth data to look for possible contradictory results that would negate the approach. The map for the largest part of Europe clearly shows that there is a much wider potential for the application of Direct Push Technology than is currently seen. The study also shows that there is a lack of large-scale databases that contain depth-resolved data as well as soil mechanical and physical properties that can be used for engineering purposes in relation to the subsurface.