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There is increasing interest in the concept of tradable driving credits (TDC) as an alternative road pricing measure. To a considerable extent, this interest is inspired by the belief that TDC will address some major equity-related concerns, which are often raised in the case of traditional road pricing, because the measure is revenue-neutral, offers an opportunity for individuals to gain, and guarantees a minimum amount of ‘free’ travel through the allocation of personal credit allowances. This study investigates the acceptability of a proposed kilometre-based TDC scheme for personal car use. By analysing data from the Netherlands and China (Beijing), opinions towards TDC and its determinants are studied in two different cultural, societal and institutional contexts. Acceptability was much higher in Beijing: 67% compared to 22% in the Netherlands. We relate this difference to higher congestion levels in Beijing and the city’s current license plate-based driving restriction policy, compared to which TDC is evaluated to be more effective and fair by a majority of the participants. Having a higher income was positively related with acceptability in both countries, as were expected effectiveness and fairness. The effect of perceived fairness was particularly strong in Beijing.

There is increasing interest in the application of tradable credit schemes in the context of personal travel. To anticipate the short-term effects of a distance-based tradable driving credit (TDC) scheme, an innovative stated adaptation experiment has been conducted. Using an activity-based approach, Dutch participants who frequently commute by car could reschedule their car-based activities and alter the travel pattern they reported in an online travel diary for a full week. This paper presents the results of model estimations that describe the likelihood of changing car use and the number of kilometres driven in response to two TDC scenarios. Reductions were larger for those who experienced a loss under the measure compared to those who could expect a gain. Participants who worked more hours and who lived in non-urban areas showed lower car use reduction levels, whereas participants with middle incomes and who were 18–25 years old showed higher reduction levels. A car dependency measure was added to the models to assess how these effects are related to the availability of car use alternatives.

Car traffic volumes continue to increase rapidly worldwide, leading to steadily rising levels of congestion and harmful emissions in many urbanised areas. Transport researchers have long been convinced of the power of pricing solutions to mitigate these problems. However, pricing initiatives have generally been confronted with low levels of public support, hampering implementation. The concept of Tradable Driving Credits (TDC) presents a promising and innovative pricing alternative, which can powerfully deliver a more efficient use of scarce road space while addressing some of the major objections usually raised in the case of conventional road pricing. This thesis explores the effects of a TDC instrument on car use from an individual perspective. First, a literature review presents an overview of empirical studies on personal travel-related tradable credit schemes carried out to date by discussing results as well as methodologies used. Further, three elements of TDC that make the instrument radically different from conventional road pricing are identified. Based on insights from the fields of behavioural economics and cognitive psychology, the review discusses how these elements might activate certain behavioural decision-making mechanisms. Second, a stated adaptation experiment was developed, using the activity-based approach, to anticipate the effects of a distance-based TDC scheme, with fixed prices, among frequent car commuters in the Netherlands. Results suggest a substantial car use reduction under the measure. Reduction levels in total number of kilometres collectively driven by the sample were 20.2% and 24.1% when the amount of free credits available for the sample represented a 17.5% and 32.2% reduction goal in kilometres travelled in two successive scenarios, respectively. Reductions were larger for those who experienced losses compared to those who experienced a gain in the base situation. Participants who worked more hours and who lived in non-urban areas showed lower car use reduction levels, whereas participants with middle incomes and who were 18-25 years old showed higher reduction levels. In cases of change, a travel mode change was the most preferred adaptation strategy, with the bike accounting for more than 40% of the changes. A mixed logit modelling framework was used to test the effects of a variety of activity/trip attributes, scenario attributes and individual characteristics on the preference for adaptation alternatives. Third, in a less elaborate stated adaptation experiment, the preferences of car owners in general, in both the Netherlands and China (Beijing), were surveyed. Willingness to change was considerably higher in Beijing than in the Netherlands and a substantial share of Beijing car owners indicated an increase in car use. Fourth, public support and it determinants were investigated in both the Netherlands and Beijing. The level of TDC acceptance was much higher in Beijing than in the Netherlands (67% and 22%, respectively). Having a higher income was positively related with acceptability in both contexts, as were expected effectiveness and fairness. The effect of perceived fairness was particularly strong in Beijing, showing that concerns about the fairness of the measure in the Beijing context of fierce competition for scarce road space is an important issue.

Car traffic volumes continue to increase rapidly worldwide, leading to steadily rising levels of congestion and harmful emissions in many urbanised areas. Transport researchers have long been convinced of the power of pricing solutions to mitigate these problems. However, pricing initiatives have generally been confronted with low levels of public support, hampering implementation. The concept of Tradable Driving Credits (TDC) presents a promising and innovative pricing alternative, which can powerfully deliver a more efficient use of scarce road space while addressing some of the major objections usually raised in the case of conventional road pricing. This thesis explores the effects of a TDC instrument on car use from an individual perspective. First, a literature review presents an overview of empirical studies on personal travel-related tradable credit schemes carried out to date by discussing results as well as methodologies used. Further, three elements of TDC that make the instrument radically different from conventional road pricing are identified. Based on insights from the fields of behavioural economics and cognitive psychology, the review discusses how these elements might activate certain behavioural decision-making mechanisms. Second, a stated adaptation experiment was developed, using the activity-based approach, to anticipate the effects of a distance-based TDC scheme, with fixed prices, among frequent car commuters in the Netherlands. Results suggest a substantial car use reduction under the measure. Reduction levels in total number of kilometres collectively driven by the sample were 20.2% and 24.1% when the amount of free credits available for the sample represented a 17.5% and 32.2% reduction goal in kilometres travelled in two successive scenarios, respectively. Reductions were larger for those who experienced losses compared to those who experienced a gain in the base situation. Participants who worked more hours and who lived in non-urban areas showed lower car use reduction levels, whereas participants with middle incomes and who were 18-25 years old showed higher reduction levels. In cases of change, a travel mode change was the most preferred adaptation strategy, with the bike accounting for more than 40% of the changes. A mixed logit modelling framework was used to test the effects of a variety of activity/trip attributes, scenario attributes and individual characteristics on the preference for adaptation alternatives. Third, in a less elaborate stated adaptation experiment, the preferences of car owners in general, in both the Netherlands and China (Beijing), were surveyed. Willingness to change was considerably higher in Beijing than in the Netherlands and a substantial share of Beijing car owners indicated an increase in car use. Fourth, public support and it determinants were investigated in both the Netherlands and Beijing. The level of TDC acceptance was much higher in Beijing than in the Netherlands (67% and 22%, respectively). Having a higher income was positively related with acceptability in both contexts, as were expected effectiveness and fairness. The effect of perceived fairness was particularly strong in Beijing, showing that concerns about the fairness of the measure in the Beijing context of fierce competition for scarce road space is an important issue.

Recent years have seen a surge of interest in the concept of tradable driving credits (TDC) as an alternative to road pricing and driving restriction measures. However, empirical research into drivers’ responses to a TDC measure is limited and even lacking for the Chinese context where the concept of TDC has attracted considerable attention. This paper reports the results of a survey that was the first to investigate drivers’ willingness to change car use under a hypothetical distance-based TDC measure in China (Beijing) and aimed to compare these results with the results of a comparative Dutch survey. We observed that willingness to change was considerably higher in Beijing than in the Netherlands and that a substantial share of Beijing car owners indicated an increase in car use. In both contexts, higher education and higher car use intensity had a positive effect on the willingness to change, whereas higher income had a negative effect. We found mixed results for household size, respondents’ car attitudes, and TDC scenario characteristics.