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For the reuse of traction batteries, many different scenarios exist, for example, stationary storage farms or fast charging stations. Another second-life usage scenario is the reuse of batteries as home energy storage in combination with a photovoltaic installation in a private household. This application is the focus of the present study. Home energy storage is a reasonable possibility for storing renewable energy and conserving resources, but it also includes multiple challenges regarding reliability and safety requirements. Within this study, these challenges are investigated. A battery inspection concept was developed, and a logistic model for considering the legal requirements was created. Data from different use cases were selected, and their structure was homogenized. To assess their safety, fire tests were performed. In addition, a concept for a reliability assessment that provides the possibility to evaluate the suitability of a battery for a second-life application based on usage data in its first life was developed. Based on the results, a prototype of a second-life storage system was built from traction battery cells removed from electric vehicles. This prototype is currently used to store energy from a photovoltaic system, and its usage data were collected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the research presented in the article is to use the Metalog family of probability distributions to assess the technical condition of traction battery packs from electric and hybrid vehicles. The description of the research object, which is a battery pack from a hybrid vehicle, will be provided. Then, a system for controlled charging and discharging of individual cells in a battery pack will be reviewed. It is an essential diagnostic and research device used to determine the capacity of individual cells. The capacity values of all battery cells will then be analyzed using the Metalog probability distribution family. The use of this tool allows us to determine the Probability Density Function for the entire battery pack. Based on this, the diagnostician is able to assess the technical condition of the tested package and decide on its further fate. It can be intended for repair, employed as a stationary energy storage facility, or used for disposal. The algorithm for assessing the technical condition of traction batteries proposed by the authors can be used in all battery packs regardless of the type of cells used and their energy capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ever-growing number of electric vehicles requires increasing amounts of energy to charge their traction batteries. Electric vehicles are the most ecological when the energy for charging them comes from renewable energy sources. Obtaining electricity from renewable sources such as photovoltaic systems is also a way to reduce the operating costs of an electric vehicle. However, to produce cheap electricity from renewable energy sources, you first need to invest in the construction of a photovoltaic system. The article presents a strategic model for charging a fleet of electric vehicles with energy from photovoltaic systems. The model is useful for sizing a planned photovoltaic system to the energy needs of a vehicle fleet. It uses the Metalog family of probability distributions to determine the probability of producing a given amount of energy needed to power electric vehicle chargers. Using the model, it is possible to determine the percentage of energy from photovoltaic systems in the total energy needed to charge a vehicle fleet. The research was carried out on real data from an operating photovoltaic system with a peak power of 50 kWp. The approach presented in the strategic model takes into account the geographical and climatic context related to the location of the photovoltaic system. The model can be used for various renewable energy sources and different sizes of vehicle fleets with different electricity demands to charge their batteries. The presented model can be used to manage the energy produced both at the design stage of the photovoltaic system and during its operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper accentuates a noticeable shift toward more economical and environmentally friendly electric vehicles within global agriculture, prompted by the growing prices of fuels and lubricants. The widespread adoption of electric vehicles for agricultural tasks encounters limitations, including such factors as performance, cost, service life and safety of traction batteries. The battery thermal management system assumes a key role in regulating battery life. (Research purpose) The study aims to analyze contemporary cooling systems for electric batteries, to identify the type of coolant capable of sustaining the optimal temperature of the traction battery under diverse climatic conditions. (Materials and methods) The paper examines the cooling systems and methods employed for battery temperature control. It provides a theoretical analysis of the effectiveness of thermal regulation for traction batteries, specifically exploring the potential to enhance battery performance through the maintenance of temperature at the required level. To facilitate comparison, several brands of electric vehicles from global automakers were selected. (Results and discussion) The paramount criterion for an effective cooling system is its capacity to rapidly dissipate heat during periods of elevated battery temperature while operating at a gradual pace during startup, thereby ensuring minimal impact on the efficiency of the electric vehicle. Based on this criterion, the paper provides statistical data regarding the modes and operating conditions of traction batteries, including their optimal operating temperature range. Calculations were conducted for three coolant types: ammonia, ethylene glycol and freon R134a. (Conclusions) Despite having an outlet temperature of 22.2 degrees Celsius, ethylene glycol registers 3.3 degrees higher than ammonia and 0.5 degrees higher than tetrafluoroethane, this refrigerant is suitable for application in copper piping.

The aim of the research presented in the article is to use the Metalog family of probability distributions to assess the technical condition of traction battery packs from electric and hybrid vehicles. The description of the research object, which is a battery pack from a hybrid vehicle, will be provided. Then, a system for controlled charging and discharging of individual cells in a battery pack will be reviewed. It is an essential diagnostic and research device used to determine the capacity of individual cells. The capacity values of all battery cells will then be analyzed using the Metalog probability distribution family. The use of this tool allows us to determine the Probability Density Function for the entire battery pack. Based on this, the diagnostician is able to assess the technical condition of the tested package and decide on its further fate. It can be intended for repair, employed as a stationary energy storage facility, or used for disposal. The algorithm for assessing the technical condition of traction batteries proposed by the authors can be used in all battery packs regardless of the type of cells used and their energy capacity.

The ever-growing number of electric vehicles requires increasing amounts of energy to charge their traction batteries. Electric vehicles are the most ecological when the energy for charging them comes from renewable energy sources. Obtaining electricity from renewable sources such as photovoltaic systems is also a way to reduce the operating costs of an electric vehicle. However, to produce cheap electricity from renewable energy sources, you first need to invest in the construction of a photovoltaic system. The article presents a strategic model for charging a fleet of electric vehicles with energy from photovoltaic systems. The model is useful for sizing a planned photovoltaic system to the energy needs of a vehicle fleet. It uses the Metalog family of probability distributions to determine the probability of producing a given amount of energy needed to power electric vehicle chargers. Using the model, it is possible to determine the percentage of energy from photovoltaic systems in the total energy needed to charge a vehicle fleet. The research was carried out on real data from an operating photovoltaic system with a peak power of 50 kWp. The approach presented in the strategic model takes into account the geographical and climatic context related to the location of the photovoltaic system. The model can be used for various renewable energy sources and different sizes of vehicle fleets with different electricity demands to charge their batteries. The presented model can be used to manage the energy produced both at the design stage of the photovoltaic system and during its operation.

Electro‐mobility is considered a key technology for reducing CO2 emissions in road traffic. However, an aspect that is little addressed in the discussion about the advantages of electro‐mobility for the reduction of greenhouse gas emission is the high ecological footprint of the manufacturing of electric vehicles, especially due to the resource‐intensive traction battery. In addition to the provision of renewable electricity for vehicle charging, efficient recycling of the battery materials and the longest possible use of the battery systems and components are prerequisites for the sustainable design of electro‐mobility. This article provides an overview of the circular value chain of obsolete traction batteries from electric vehicles. Based on a system‐dynamics and a discrete‐event simulation approach, future return quantities of obsolete traction batteries are estimated on the basis of current diffusion scenarios, and various utilization options from 2nd‐life concepts to alternative recycling processes are presented and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life cycle engineering (LCE) methods are essential in the development of next generation energy storage systems in order to avoid harmful unintended environmental consequences. Moreover, the integration of life cycle knowledge early in the development stage of such technologies can lead to improved performance in regard to their environmental impact. Extensive information from all stages is needed to understand interdependencies along the life cycle, e.g. between required raw materials, applied processing parameters and lifetime behaviour of the battery. From an LCE perspective, the development of detailed and representative inventories for the assessment of traction batteries is a time and resource intensive process, which requires a difficult synchronization with product development activities. A cyber and physical integration of Life Cycle Technologies in a product system offers the potential to reduce data collection efforts while enhancing its robustness and reliability. Life Cycle Technologies can refer to any product- or process- integrated data acquisition technology, e.g. sensors, which can be leveraged to provide knowledge about a product's life cycle performance. In this paper, we introduce the concept of Life Cycle Technologies and their potential to maximize the functionality of traction batteries while reducing their life cycle environmental impact. Furthermore, we present a reference architecture aiming at the development and integration of such technologies. Finally, we illustrate its application in a case study of All Solid State Batteries and discuss its usability in the development of new generation battery systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The material use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is widely discussed in public and scientific discourse. Cathodes of state-of-the-art LIBs are partially comprised of high-priced raw materials mined under alarming ecological and social circumstances. Moreover, battery manufacturers are searching for cathode chemistries that represent a trade-off between low costs and an acceptable material criticality of the comprised elements while fulfilling the performance requirements for the respective application of the LIB. This article provides an assessment of the substitutability of common LIB cathode chemistries (NMC 111, −532, −622, −811, NCA 3%, −9%, LMO, LFP, and LCO) for five major fields of application (traction batteries, stationary energy storage systems, consumer electronics, power-/garden tools, and domestic appliances). Therefore, we provide a tailored methodology for evaluating the substitutability of products or components and critically reflect on the results. Outcomes show that LFP is the preferable cathode chemistry while LCO obtains the worst rating for all fields of application under the assumptions made (as well as the weighting of the considered categories derived from an expert survey). The ranking based on the substitutability score of the other cathode chemistries varies per field of application. NMC 532, −811, −111, and LMO are named recommendable types of cathodes.

Recommendations on choosing the power of the electric motor, depending on the weight of the vehicle, its speed and the run distance in the «only electricity» mode are developed. Based on mathematical modeling and a number of field tests of electric vehicles, a three-dimensional dependance of the power on the weight and the speed set is built and conclusions are presented.

The growing popularity of electric vehicles is one of the main drivers of battery industry transformation. Words like "transport system decarbonization", "electromobility", and "environmental-friendly society" are very popular today, but questions remain as to how to measure electric vehicles' adoption progress and how this transition changes the battery industry. This perspective paper provides a review of the electric cars and buses market, estimates the production volumes of some other electric vehicle types, and discusses the role of traction batteries in the global battery market. A simple estimation of the sales rate allows us to evaluate the prospects of electric vehicle adoption in leading countries. Finally, the application of the main battery chemistries is reviewed and topical issues to the research society are addressed and formulated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable and smart mobility and associated energy systems are key to decarbonise the EU and develop a clean, resource efficient, circular and carbon-neutral future. To achieve the 2030 and 2050 targets, technological and societal changes are needed. This transition will inevitably change the composition of the future EU fleet, with an increasing share of electric vehicles (xEVs). To assess the potential contribution of lithium-ion traction batteries (LIBs) in decreasing the environmental burdens of EU mobility, several aspects should be included. Even though environmental assessments of batteries along their life-cycle have been already conducted using life-cycle assessment, a single tool does not likely provide a complete overview of such a complex system. Complementary information is provided by material flow analysis and criticality assessment, with emphasis on supply risk. Bridging complementary aspects can better support decision-making, especially when different strategies are simultaneously tackled. The results point out that the future life-cycle GWP of traction LIBs will likely improve, mainly due to more environmental-friendly energy mix and improved recycling. Even though second-use will postpone available materials for recycling, both these end-of-life strategies allow keeping the values of materials in the circular economy, with recycling also contributing to mitigate the supply risk of Lithium and Nickel.

Electric vehicle batteries demonstrate the present and future challenges of disassembly, reuse and recycling and indicate the need for an enhanced life cycle design. Considering the complexity of products like batteries, the recycling process depends on disassembly to optimize output fractions, reduce material depletion and environmental effects to close the life cycle. Furthermore, the design phase determines many future impacts in other life cycle phases. With the help of a newly designed virtual disassembly tool based on the MTM-UAS methods, it is now possible to transfer waste treatment knowledge gained from batteries at the end of their life phase to research and development. Information about disassembly time, material composition of the battery system and recycling quota allow for the discovery of optimisation potentials in the first phase of the battery life cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing popularity of electric vehicles is one of the main drivers of battery industry transformation. Words like “transport system decarbonization„, “electromobility„, and “environmental-friendly society„ are very popular today, but questions remain as to how to measure electric vehicles’ adoption progress and how this transition changes the battery industry. This perspective paper provides a review of the electric cars and buses market, estimates the production volumes of some other electric vehicle types, and discusses the role of traction batteries in the global battery market. A simple estimation of the sales rate allows us to evaluate the prospects of electric vehicle adoption in leading countries. Finally, the application of the main battery chemistries is reviewed and topical issues to the research society are addressed and formulated.

A method to classify the retired traction batteries from the electric vehicles according to the characteristic analysis is proposed to meet the requirements by the particular applications, so that the retired batteries can be more effectively utilized. Firstly, the preliminary screening by the appearances and basic performance tests are carried out to ensure the batteries are suitable for the secondary use. Secondly, the maximum capacity and equivalent resistance spectrum are selected as the indicators for battery sorting, basing on the characteristic analysis of the retired batteries. Finally, the concept of “effective capacity” is employed and a fast estimation method is proposed, so that the batteries can be effectively classified to meet the given requirements. An example is presented to outline the process implementing. The proposed method is fast, convenient and efficient, providing a low cost solution for the retired battery sorting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because of the need of introducing ecologically clean transport technologies, activities bound up with using electric propulsion in motor vehicles operating in public transport are undertaken. Technical and operational possibilities of introducing electric-powered buses to the communal public transport are shown in the article. The operation of that kind of fleet requires appropriate technical infrastructure involving charging electric-powered urban transport. Simultaneously, former experiences show strong mutual connection between technical sphere and organizational system of communal public transport in agglomerations. Hence, essential significance among other things is given to the layout of the functioning bus lines network and the organisation of bus operations on the lines (timetable). The models of the technical, organizational, economical and ecological links enabling optimal choice of type of bus propulsion were worked out, with the aim of solving this problem rationally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The battery packs in EV (electric vehicle) applications are generally composed of lots of battery cells connected in a series or parallel way. Differences in battery cells may shorten the lifetime of the battery pack, and even worse, lead to fire or explosion. Cell balancing or charge equalization is an effective way to relief the problems caused by cell imbalance. A novel dual-inductor based charge equalizer is proposed with a detailed investigation by theoretical analysis, simulations and experiments. A balancing strategy based on periodical cell OCV (open circuit voltage) measurements is also developed to facilitate the implementation of the proposed equalizer. The charge equalizer is capable of transferring excess energy from an arbitrary battery cell to the battery module through a discharge bus realized with a switch array. With the assistance of a flying capacitor, the requirement on control synchronization of frequency switches can be lowered. The proposed charge equalizer is easy to be implemented in a BMS (battery management system), and the experimental results show an acceptable efficiency of 86% in the balancing of a battery module composed of 6 series-connected LiMnO 2 based cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rising number of electric vehicles (EV) will eventually lead to a comparable number of EV batteries reaching their end-of-life (EOL). Efforts are therefore being made to develop technologies and processes for recycling, remanufacturing and reusing EV batteries. One important step of many such processes is the disassembly of EOL EV batteries, which poses a challenging task due to unpredictable lot sizes and volumes, as well as significant variations in battery design between different car models. In response to these challenges and the increasing demand, we present a concept for a battery disassembly workstation where a human is assisted by a robot. While the human performs the more complex tasks, the proposed robot performs simple, repetitive tasks such as removing screws and bolts. Such a robot requires 1) a suitable procedure for the unscrewing task, 2) a means of autonomously changing screwdriver bit in accordance with the variety of screws and bolts found in EV batteries, and 3) some means of acquiring information regarding the location of these fasteners. This paper summarises the results of our preliminary investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rising number of electric vehicles comes along with an increasing demand for Li-Ion batteries. As resources such as lithium are valuable it is economically worthwhile to recycle EV batteries. One of the first steps of every battery recycling process is the disassembly, which can be a quite time and cost consuming process and hence has to be planned properly. Using the battery of the hybrid car Audi Q5 as a case study, a planning approach for the disassembly will be discussed in this paper. Therefore, disassembly sequences will be derived from a priority matrix and a disassembly graph will be drawn up. Finally, recommendations for the design of the disassembly system and work stations will be given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Once again a very significant matter of power drive, also an ecological one, in the form of development of batteries for electrical drive of city transportation vehicles, also of passenger automobiles, motorcycles, and the like, has imposed itself. New electro-chemical systems have been developed, such as system using Zn-Br₂, Li-Al/FeS₂, and Na-S, of which are expected solutions that will contribute to a more massive application or utilization of electrically powered vehicles.

The material use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is widely discussed in public and scientific discourse. Cathodes of state-of-the-art LIBs are partially comprised of high-priced raw materials mined under alarming ecological and social circumstances. Moreover, battery manufacturers are searching for cathode chemistries that represent a trade-off between low costs and an acceptable material criticality of the comprised elements while fulfilling the performance requirements for the respective application of the LIB. This article provides an assessment of the substitutability of common LIB cathode chemistries (NMC 111, −532, −622, −811, NCA 3%, −9%, LMO, LFP, and LCO) for five major fields of application (traction batteries, stationary energy storage systems, consumer electronics, power-/garden tools, and domestic appliances). Therefore, we provide a tailored methodology for evaluating the substitutability of products or components and critically reflect on the results. Outcomes show that LFP is the preferable cathode chemistry while LCO obtains the worst rating for all fields of application under the assumptions made (as well as the weighting of the considered categories derived from an expert survey). The ranking based on the substitutability score of the other cathode chemistries varies per field of application. NMC 532, −811, −111, and LMO are named recommendable types of cathodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable and smart mobility and associated energy systems are key to decarbonise the EU and develop a clean, resource efficient, circular and carbon-neutral future. To achieve the 2030 and 2050 targets, technological and societal changes are needed. This transition will inevitably change the composition of the future EU fleet, with an increasing share of electric vehicles (xEVs). To assess the potential contribution of lithium-ion traction batteries (LIBs) in decreasing the environmental burdens of EU mobility, several aspects should be included. Even though environmental assessments of batteries along their life-cycle have been already conducted using life-cycle assessment, a single tool does not likely provide a complete overview of such a complex system. Complementary information is provided by material flow analysis and criticality assessment, with emphasis on supply risk. Bridging complementary aspects can better support decision-making, especially when different strategies are simultaneously tackled. The results point out that the future life-cycle GWP of traction LIBs will likely improve, mainly due to more environmental-friendly energy mix and improved recycling. Even though second-use will postpone available materials for recycling, both these end-of-life strategies allow keeping the values of materials in the circular economy, with recycling also contributing to mitigate the supply risk of Lithium and Nickel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]