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Children ‘overimitate’ causally irrelevant actions in experiments where both irrelevant and relevant actions involve a single common tool. This study design may make it harder for children to recognize the irrelevant actions, as the perceived functionality of the tool during the demonstration of the relevant action may be carried over to the irrelevant action, potentially increasing overimitation. Moreover, little is known how overimitation is affected by the demonstrator's expressed emotions and the child's prior success with the task. Here, 131 nine- to ten-year-old French and German children first engaged in a tool-based task, being successful or unsuccessful, and then watched an adult demonstrating the solution involving one irrelevant and one relevant action before smiling or remaining neutral. These actions were performed with the same tool or with two separate tools, testing potential carry-over effects of the functionality of the relevant action on the irrelevant action. We show that overimitation was higher when the same tool was used for both actions and when children were previously unsuccessful, but was not affected by the demonstrator's displayed emotion. Our results suggest that future overimitation research should account for the number of tools used in a demonstration and participants' previous task experience.

Nonhuman primates are known to use objects as tools. Amongst the great apes, gorillas seem to be the least proficient tool users. Previous research has shown that the western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at the Buffalo Zoo use buckets, given for enrichment, to collect water (Margulis, Steele, & Kleinfelder, 2012). To further explore the cognitive ability of these gorillas, a study was designed that tested whether the gorillas could distinguish between a functional and a non-functional manipulable object. The gorillas were given four buckets, two of which had holes drilled in the bottom (the “non-functional” bucket). Seventy-eight hours of videotaped data were collected to test the hypothesis that the gorillas could distinguish between the functional and the non-functional buckets for transport of liquids. Overall, gorillas interacted with functional buckets significantly more than with non-functional buckets. This pattern was driven largely by the behavior of the oldest adult female. The findings suggest that gorillas have the ability to recognize tool functionality.

Abstract: B.J. Fogg's Functional Triad shows the manner in which computing technologies can persuade people by playing 3 different functional roles, namely, as tools, media, or social actors. However, the effects of user perceptions of these 3 functional roles are largely unknown. We advance Fogg's framework by developing a conceptual model to explain how a feature of a computing technology (ie, the trade‐off transparency feature of a recommendation agent [RA], which interactively demonstrates the trade‐offs among product attribute values) can result in certain outcomes by shaping the beliefs of individuals regarding the 3 functional roles. We examine the effects of the perceived Functional Triad on the following 3 outcomes: (1) persuading users to use an RA (intention to use), (2) persuading users to follow the advice of the RA (recommendation adherence), and (3) persuading users to recommend the RA to others (recommendation to friends). We conducted a laboratory experiment to manipulate 4 levels of trade‐off transparency, thereby creating an adequate amount of variations for the perceived Functional Triad. A total of 160 participants were recruited from a large university in North America. Although designers could control the technology design aspects, these designs may not accomplish the intended effects on users, who have their own perceptions. This study contributes to existing literature by simultaneously evaluating the 3 different outcomes of the Functional Triad from the perspective of users. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Increasingly, studies are reported that examine how conceptual modeling is conducted in practice. Yet, typically the studies to date have examined in isolation how modeling grammars can be, or are, used to develop models of information systems or organizational processes, without considering that such modeling is typically done by means of a modeling tool that extends the modeling functionality offered by a grammar through complementary features. This paper extends the literature by examining how the use of seven different features of modeling tools affects usage beliefs users develop when using modeling grammars for process modeling. We show that five distinct tool features positively affect usefulness, ease of use and satisfaction beliefs of users. We offer a number of interpretations about the findings. We also describe how the results inform decisions of relevance to developers of modeling tools as well as managers in charge for making modeling-related investment decisions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Research on the use of learning tools has brought to light variables that influence the learner on using or not using the tools. A deeper analysis on the current findings is attempted in this study. It adds a psychomotor task; it assesses the actual functionality of the employed tools, and it further explores learner-related variables that influence tool use, most importantly on perceived tool functionality (the beliefs of learners that a certain tool would be the most optimal one). Fiftyeight learners had to build a LEGO® figure. Two tools were used: a video with intentionally low functionality demonstrating the figure assembly, and a step-bystep guideline with pictures. Based on the tools, there were three experimental conditions: guideline (G), video (V) both tools (GV); and one control condition (C) without tools. To analyze the functionality of the tools, the effect of tool use on performance was monitored at two different moments in all conditions. To examine the perceived functionality of tools, the tool use by the learners was monitored in the (GV) condition. Moreover, we checked for the effect of prior knowledge, metacognition and self-efficacy on tool use in the (GV)condition. Results revealed that the tools were functional. The (G), (V) and (GV) conditions significantly outperformed the (C) condition, but contrary to our assumptions, the (V) condition outperformed the other experimental conditions. Regarding perceived functionality, all learners perceived the tools as functional, that means all learners picked a tool. They, however, could not identify from which tool they would benefit the most, i.e. they could not recognize the most functional tool. Concerning the other learner-related variables, no significant effect was found. Theoretical implications for further research are discussed. First on what kind of tool-related variables influence tool use. Second on the effect learner-related variables, especially perceptions, might have on using tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children 'overimitate' causally irrelevant actions in experiments where both irrelevant and relevant actions involve a single common tool. This study design may make it harder for children to recognize the irrelevant actions, as the perceived functionality of the tool during the demonstration of the relevant action may be carried over to the irrelevant action, potentially increasing overimitation. Moreover, little is known how overimitation is affected by the demonstrator's expressed emotions and the child's prior success with the task. Here, 131 nine- to ten-year-old French and German children first engaged in a tool-based task, being successful or unsuccessful, and then watched an adult demonstrating the solution involving one irrelevant and one relevant action before smiling or remaining neutral. These actions were performed with the same tool or with two separate tools, testing potential carry-over effects of the functionality of the relevant action on the irrelevant action. We show that overimitation was higher when the same tool was used for both actions and when children were previously unsuccessful, but was not affected by the demonstrator's displayed emotion. Our results suggest that future overimitation research should account for the number of tools used in a demonstration and participants' previous task experience., (© 2021 The Authors.)