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Residues differing in quality and incorporation depths are presumed to contribute differently to the improvement of soil properties through decomposition. Understanding the response of residue decomposition at different depths using tillage implements and effective microorganisms can help to develop strategies for improving soil properties. Therefore, three nitrogen (N) supplemented crop residues: wheat (Rw), chickpea (Rc), Rw + Rc, and no residue (R0) as a control, under three different tillage implements: cultivator (CT), mouldboard plough (MBP), and chisel plough (CP), in combination with beneficial microorganisms (BM) applied (BMA) or not applied (BM0, control) were investigated during summer 2018 and 2019. The experiment was conducted in a randomised complete block design (RCBD) with a split plot arrangement with four replications. Tillage implements were placed in the main plots, and crop residues and beneficial microorganisms in subplots. The results of the experiment showed that the use of a MBP increased the availability of mineral nitrogen (Nmin) by 23% but decreased the content of soil organic carbon (SOC) (14%) and total nitrogen (Ntot) (7%) compared to the CT. The Nmin availability was more than doubled with Rc either alone (116%) or in combination with Rw (106%) compared to Ro. Decomposition of crop residues was faster with the BMA, especially with chickpea residues compared to wheat residues or its combination. Structural equation modelling indicated that soil fertility and maize phenology were directly affected by most of soil properties with Nmin having the highest estimated effect (119.5), followed by electrical conductivity (EC) (0.23), and indirectly by soil pH (0.06). It was concluded that the crop residues improved soil fertility and delayed maize phenology when incorporated through mouldboard or chisel ploughing into deeper soil layers with the BMA. Therefore, the application of chickpea residues is recommended for a faster soil mineralisation and N availability, while wheat residues are recommended in combination with deep tillage for long-term carbon stock development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Criteria for estimating the operational and economic efficiency of the use of epoxy–sand composites with different contents of the sand component in the hardening of parts of soil-cultivating tools are proposed and substantiated, which allow identifying the feasibility of using abrasive-resistant coatings regardless of their functional purpose, agrotechnical working conditions, design and market price of products after coating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tillage tools are the main soil engaging implements facing high abrasive wear. This paper provided an overview of the research findings published in the area of wear and coating of tillage tools. Many researchers across the world have studied on the wear behavior, coating materials and methods of the tillage implements. In the previous studies coating methods and materials were used to resist the tillage tools against the wear phenomena. The effect of soil type on the wear of parts of impalements is investigated and reported in various research works. Draft force of the coated of the parts of tillage implements have also been measured and compared against the uncoated ones and presented in various publications. Many other scientists have considered and worked on the modelling of the wear of tillage tools. Several parameters such as tool geometry, soil properties including moisture content and soil texture and performance parameters of tillage tools such as forward speed and depth have been noticed in the wear modelling. The reviewed studies indicated that the wear rate of tillage implements increases with the increase of the size of sand particles in the soil. The previous investigations showed the less consumption of draft force by the coated tillage tools. This review helps those who are interested in work on the wear behavior aspects of the soil engaging implements and the coating of soil tillage tools.

BACKGROUND: Tractors emit high intensity noise and prolonged exposure to high intensity noise causes hearing loss to the drivers. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to measure noise intensity at the tractor drivers' ear level and hearing loss among tractor drivers. METHODS: Noise intensity was measured on 6 models of tractors which were operated with 5 different tillage implements. In order to assess hearing loss, audiometric test was performed at 7 frequencies, i.e. 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 6000, and 8000 Hz, among 30 tractor drivers and 30 control group subjects. All the selected tractor drivers and control group subjects were also interviewed to obtain personal information and noise exposure details. RESULTS: The tractor drivers were exposed to noise intensity in the range of 91.7–97.5 dB(A). Audiogram analysis shows that the hearing threshold levels were significantly (p < 0.05) higher among the tractor drivers as compared with the control group subjects. The effect was significantly (p < 0.05) more on the left ear as compared with the right ear among the tractor drivers. Increase in age has significant (p < 0.05) effect on the hearing threshold levels on the left ear. Prevalence of high frequency hearing loss was 50% among tractor drivers as compared with 10% among control group subjects. Hearing loss was significantly (p < 0.05) more in the low frequency as compared with the high frequency among the tractor drivers. CONCLUSION: Indian tractor operators are exposed to high noise levels which may result in hearing loss. It is recommended that hearing conservation programs should be initiated to prevent noise hazards and hearing loss among the tractor drivers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This study deals with the application of the Microsoft Excel for the estimation of the power requirements of some tillage implements. The mathematical formulas embedded in the spreadsheet file have been developed in the previously published papers; however, those formulas were augmented herein in order to contain some agricultural mechanization issues. Another feature of this article is the ability of the spreadsheet to generate trend curves automatically. The comparison of the power expenditure aspects of different tillage implements as well as the inspection of the effect of an arbitrary selected input parameter on the spreadsheet outputs were effectively performed. Numerically, the specific work of the rotary tiller was estimated two times to five times higher than the specific work of drawing implements. Furthermore, as an example of trend curves derived in this article, the increase in disc angle in the range of 25° to 70° reduced the draft and power needs of the disc plow by 66% and 54%, respectively. However, it increased the disc plow specific draft and power by 34% and21%, respectively.

This project entailed the design, manufacture, and testing of a test setup with the ability to measure all load components acting on tillage and planting implements. In future, data obtained with the test setup can be used to perform accurate design calculations, as input into finite element simulations, and to perform accurate fatigue analysis. The design of implements can therefore be improved to better withstand the loads under various operational conditions and to minimise fatigue cracking. Laboratory controlled testing, and subsequent field tests, proved that the designed test setup was able to isolate and accurately measure each of the three orthogonal load components, as well as the main moment. It was further shown that the remaining two moments could be accurately calculated using the measured load components and fixed geometric lengths. The conclusion was drawn, based on field tests, that an increase in speed with the tine ripper had no significant effect on the mean load. Further, an increase in the working depth, resulted in an increase in the load, especially in the draught and vertical directions. Finally, it was shown that a decrease in turning radius (a tighter turn), resulted in an increase in the lateral force component. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sustainable intensification of agriculture has become a paramount concern in ensuring global food security on a sustainable basis. Crop residue (CR) management plays a pivotal role in this context, as it influences soil health, nutrients cycling, and overall crop productivity. However, information about the intricate relationship between beneficial microbes (BM), crop residue mineralization, and maize production under various tillage systems is limited. Therefore, we conducted field trials over two years (2018 and 2019) to assess the availability of nutrients and maize yield in response to CR placed at different soil depths with and without BM application. The study consisted of three tillage implements [field cultivator (FC), mouldboard plough (MBP) and chisel plough (CP)], four N augmented CR [no residue (Ro), wheat residue (Rw), chickpea residue (Rc), and Rw+Rc] and two levels of beneficial microbes [BMw -With 250 L BM ton−1 of CR and BMo-without BM]. An in-situ mini litterbag experiment using the CR with and without BM placed up to soil depth of 15, 30, and 45 cm, corresponding to three tillage systems in nylon bags was also performed for C and N decomposition. The field experiment was carried out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with split plot arrangement having four replications. Tillage implements were allotted to main plots while CR and BM were allotted to sub plots. However, the litterbag study was performed using RCB design. A total of 160 kg N ha−1 was derived as 50% each from CR and urea. The Rc increased the soil mineral N (25.37 and 23.84%) and decreased the SOC (34.45 and 40.56%) over the Rw in soil sampled at maize sowing and harvesting stages, respectively. Similarly, the BM improved the soil mineral N after sowing and/or harvesting stages. The MBP had 13.9% higher grain yield than FC. The Rc had resulted in more ear m−2 (7.2), grains ear−1 (442), 1000 grain weight (319.28 g), and grain yield (8993 kg ha−1) of maize than other CR treatments. Structural equation modelling suggested that dry matter was directly affected by growth contributing components and negatively affected by crop phenological observations. In conclusion, the chickpea crop residues decomposed faster with the addition of BM (BMw) under MBP with improved maize grain yield. • Soil mineral N was higher with 30 cm placement of residue, but SOC was higher with 15 cm placement of residue. • The MN availability from Rc was higher at Rc placement at 30 cm depth while that of Rw at 15 cm depth. • Chickpea residue had resulted in higher soil mineral nitrogen availability and maize growth than wheat residue. • The BMw had increased the soil mineral nitrogen but reduced soil organic carbon as compared BMo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tillage is the main force of soil redistribution in agricultural land use and has been seen as more critical than water erosion. This study aims to evaluate the effect of tillage with standard disk in vineyards. A representative study area with grapevines was selected, and 39 inter-rows were selected to test the effect of slope and forward speed. In each inter-row, a strip of soil was collected, and mixed with 2 kg of coloured sand used as a tracer, then replaced in the strip, and shallow soil tillage was performed by means of a standard disk plough. Three soil subsamples were collected along the slope every 0.30 m from the coloured strip and the sand tracer was separated from the soil and weighed. The results show that the mean soil translocation distance ranged from 0.73 to 1.14 m along the upslope direction, and from 0.32 to 0.84 m along the downslope direction. The net translocation was −0.33 ± 0.12 m which indicate an upslope soil movement. Mean translocation distance was not significantly affected by the considered forward speeds. These results demonstrate that tillage can reallocate soil upslope and open new insights into the use of disk plough as sustainable management in vineyards.

Organic manures if properly incorporated in soil with suitable tillage implement might better enhance grain yield and soil fertility. To investigate the influence of tillage systems and nitrogen (N) sources incorporation on soil physical properties, total N and maize productivity, a field experiment was conducted at Agronomy Research Farm, The University of Agriculture Peshawar during summer 2016. The design used was randomized complete block design with split plot arrangement having four replications. Tillage implements (mould board plough, rotavator, disk harrow and cultivator) were used as main plot factor and N sources (control, cattle manure, poultry manure, sheep manure, mushroom spent, mungbean residue and urea) as subplot. The results exhibited that, improved bulk density, grain yield, harvest index and soil total N (STN) were observed when N incorporated with MB plough. In case of N sources poultry manure, sheep manure and mushroom spent gave at par yield with urea. However, STN and other soil physical properties were significantly higher in organic fertilizer applied plots compared to urea treatments. Conclusively, urea incorporated with cultivator gives higher yield but organic sources incorporated with MB plough could be better alternate for urea to improve maize productivity on sustainable basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farm machinery selection, operation and management directly impact crop cultivation processes and outputs. A priori quantification of technical and financial needs allows definition of proportionate distribution and management of available resources and simplification of selection process. Appropriate planning, association and adjustment of the power unit and implement are required for soil cultivation. Consideration of functional parameters of the implement, their proper estimation and operation directly impact the soil structure, productivity and return on investment. Thus, a modelling approach was implemented for the definition of possible parameter-price relations for tillage equipment. The performed analysis allowed us to investigate the main relevant parameters, quantify their impact, and elaborate forecasting models for price, power, mass and working width. The significant relevance of the technical parameters and adjustment issues were outlined for each tillage implement group. For harrows and cultivators, the dependencies between studied parameters expressed better predictive qualities, especially for price-mass relation (R² > 0.8). While for ploughs power and mass relation had a primary output (R² = 0.7). The prediction features of the models provided reliable results for the estimation of the indicative values of the price and parameters of the implements.

A field trial was conducted at Agronomy Research Farm (ARF) of The University of Agriculture Peshawar during summer 2016 to investigate the effect of various tillage implements and nitrogen sources on maize yield and soil organic matter. Randomized complete block design with split plot arrangement having four replications was used. Tillage implements (mould board plough, rotavator, disk harrow and cultivator) were applied in main plots while nitrogen sources (control, cattle manure, poultry manure, sheep manure, mushroom spent, mungbean residue and urea) in subplots. The results exhibited that, higher plant height (200.4 cm), grains ear-1(351), seed index (228.8 g), grain yield (3522 kg ha-1), and biological yield (10799 kg ha-1) were observed with nitrogen sources incorporated with mould board plough. In case of nitrogen sources; poultry manure (3507 kg ha-1), sheep manure (3468 kg ha-1) and mushroom spent (3450 kg ha-1) gave at par grain yield with urea (3667 kg ha-1). However, soil organic matter was significantly higher in organic fertilizer applied plots compared to urea treatments. Conclusively, organic sources incorporated with mould board plough could be better alternative urea to improve maize productivity and soil fertility on sustainable basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study was carried out to evaluate the effects of different tillage implements on growth and yield of wheat at farmer's field in District Toba Tek Singh, Punjab-Pakistan during 2013-14 and 2014-15. Randomize complete block design with five treatments and three replications was used in the study. The treatments T1: 1 cultivator, 1 disc harrow and 1 planking (CDP); T2: 1 mouldboard plough, 1 disc harrow and 1 planking (MDP); T3: 1 cultivator, 1 rotavator and 1 planking (CRP); T4: 1 mouldboard plough, 1 rotavator and 1 planking (MRP); and T5: 2 cultivator and 1 planking (CP) were applied. Maximum germination rate (276.2 Nos.) was obtained, when T4 (MRP) was used, while minimum germination rate (255.5 Nos.) was recorded when T5 (CP) was used. Maximum grains per spikes (33.7 Nos.) were recorded in T4 (MRP). Tillage implement practiced in T4 (MRP) yielded 421.38 tillers per square meter which were significantly higher than all other tillage implements. Similarly, T4 (MRP) showed higher grain yield (4439.7 kg/ha) as compared to other four tillage practices. The benefit cost ratio for T4 (MRP) is 3.41 which is higher than other tillage practices used in this research. The tillage practice of T4 (MRP) is recommended in cotton-wheat zone of Pakistan after the harvesting of cotton. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tillage tools are the main soil engaging implements facing high abrasive wear. This paper provided an overview of the research findings published in the area of wear and coating of tillage tools. Many researchers across the world have studied on the wear behavior, coating materials and methods of the tillage implements. In the previous studies coating methods and materials were used to resist the tillage tools against the wear phenomena. The effect of soil type on the wear of parts of impalements is investigated and reported in various research works. Draft force of the coated of the parts of tillage implements have also been measured and compared against the uncoated ones and presented in various publications. Many other scientists have considered and worked on the modelling of the wear of tillage tools. Several parameters such as tool geometry, soil properties including moisture content and soil texture and performance parameters of tillage tools such as forward speed and depth have been noticed in the wear modelling. The reviewed studies indicated that the wear rate of tillage implements increases with the increase of the size of sand particles in the soil. The previous investigations showed the less consumption of draft force by the coated tillage tools. This review helps those who are interested in work on the wear behavior aspects of the soil engaging implements and the coating of soil tillage tools., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2023 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Abstract: Conservation agriculture (CA) based crop management technologies specially zero- or minimum-tillage are being rapidly adopted by the farmers in intensively cultivated wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production systems of South Asia. Farmers use these tillage options considering them best as per their wisdom. However, scanty information is available on relative energy and economic efficacy of different tillage and seeding implements being used by the farmers for wheat production in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of South Asia. We investigated the effect of five wheat establishment methods (i) conventional tillage; (ii) reduced-tillage; (iii) rotavator tillage; (iv) raised bed planting; and (v) zero-tillage for their energy and economic efficiency in a Typic Ustochrept alluvial sandy loam soil in the IGP during 2005–2008. We hypothesized that (1) zero- or minimum-tillage implements would lead to improved operational field capacity; (2) the CA based technologies would enhance energy efficiency; and (3) overall these tillage and seeding methods would enhance net income and crop productivity. We measured implement efficiency, energy inputs and outputs, tillage and seeding efficiency as well as wheat productivity and economics. The results of the study showed that zero-tillage improved the operational field capacity by 81%, specific energy by 17% and the energy usage efficiency by 13% as compared to the conventional tillage. But, higher total effective field capacity (9.93hha−1) on raised beds is in contrast with our second hypothesis. The enhanced net income in zero-tillage (33%) and reduced-tillage (20%) compared to CT support the third hypothesis. The overall results of the study revealed that CA-based crop establishment practices are a viable options for the farmers not only in terms of energy and time efficiency but also for attaining higher productivity and profitability. There exists a large potential of CA based crop establishment practices in South Asia not only in terms of crop productivity and profitability but also their energy efficiency, global warming potential and soil health. The study also emphasizes for long-term strategic research in systems perspective for better understanding CA based technologies in different efficiency and soil health aspects. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Tillage is the main force of soil redistribution in agricultural land use and has been seen as more critical than water erosion. This study aims to evaluate the effect of tillage with standard disk in vineyards. A representative study area with grapevines was selected, and 39 inter-rows were selected to test the effect of slope and forward speed. In each inter-row, a strip of soil was collected, and mixed with 2 kg of coloured sand used as a tracer, then replaced in the strip, and shallow soil tillage was performed by means of a standard disk plough. Three soil subsamples were collected along the slope every 0.30 m from the coloured strip and the sand tracer was separated from the soil and weighed. The results show that the mean soil translocation distance ranged from 0.73 to 1.14 m along the upslope direction, and from 0.32 to 0.84 m along the downslope direction. The net translocation was −0.33 ± 0.12 m which indicate an upslope soil movement. Mean translocation distance was not significantly affected by the considered forward speeds. These results demonstrate that tillage can reallocate soil upslope and open new insights into the use of disk plough as sustainable management in vineyards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Field experiments were conducted during 2003 and 2004 at four locations in northern Greece to evaluate the effects of tillage implements and herbicide treatments on the weed control and yield of cotton grown under a mobile sprinkler or drip irrigation system. The tillage implements consisted of three seedbed preparation tillage implements: a field cultivator with a double rolling basket, a disk harrow or a rotary harrow. The herbicide treatments consisted of a broadcast preplant-incorporated (PPI) application of trifluralin or S-metolachlor followed by pre-emergence (PRE)-applied prometryn, a PRE 38 cm band application of S-metolachlor plus fluometuron or a broadcast PPI application of S-metolachlor followed by early postemergence-applied trifloxysulfuron-sodium. In most cases, the PPI applications followed by the PRE application of prometryn resulted in the greatest control of black nightshade ( Solanum nigrum L.), redroot pigweed ( Amaranthus retroflexus L.), and common lambsquarters ( Chenopodium album L.). The control of black nightshade and common lambsquarters was slightly reduced when the herbicides were incorporated by rotary harrow. The cotton yield was not affected in most cases by the tillage implements, while the drip irrigation system provided a greater or similar cotton yield as compared with the sprinklers. The PPI application of trifluralin followed by the PRE-applied prometryn in the cotton grown under drip irrigation provided the greatest lint yield in most cases. Therefore, a drip irrigation system and disk harrow or field cultivator implement could be used as the first choice of cotton growers in integrated crop management production systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Agriculture and the plow originated 10–13 millennia ago in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East, mostly along the Tigris, Euphrates, Nile, Indus and Yangtze River valleys, and were introduced into Greece and southeastern Europe ∼8000 years ago. The wooden plow, called an ard, evolved into the “Roman plow”, with an iron plowshare, described by Virgil around 1 ad and was used in Europe until the fifth century. It further evolved into a soil inverting plow during the 8th to 10th century. In the U.S., a moldboard plow was designed by Thomas Jefferson in 1784, patented by Charles Newfold in 1796, and marketed in the 1830s as a cast iron plow by a blacksmith named John Deere. Use of the plow expanded rapidly with the introduction of the “steam horse” in 1910 that led to widespread severe soil erosion and environmental degradation culminating in the Dust Bowl of the 1930s. A transition from moldboard plow to various forms of conservation tillage began with the development of 2,4-D after World War II. No-till is presently practiced on about 95million hectares globally. No-till technologies are very effective in minimizing soil and crop residue disturbance, controlling soil evaporation, minimizing erosion losses, sequestering C in soil and reducing energy needs. However, no-till is effective only with the use of crop residue as mulch, which has numerous competing uses. No-till farming can reduce yield in poorly drained, clayey soils when springtime is cold and wet. Soil-specific research is needed to enhance applicability of no-till farming by alleviating biophysical, economic, social and cultural constraints. There is a strong need to enhance sustainability of production systems while improving the environmental quality. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Farm machinery selection, operation and management directly impact crop cultivation processes and outputs. A priori quantification of technical and financial needs allows definition of proportionate distribution and management of available resources and simplification of selection process. Appropriate planning, association and adjustment of the power unit and implement are required for soil cultivation. Consideration of functional parameters of the implement, their proper estimation and operation directly impact the soil structure, productivity and return on investment. Thus, a modelling approach was implemented for the definition of possible parameter-price relations for tillage equipment. The performed analysis allowed us to investigate the main relevant parameters, quantify their impact, and elaborate forecasting models for price, power, mass and working width. The significant relevance of the technical parameters and adjustment issues were outlined for each tillage implement group. For harrows and cultivators, the dependencies between studied parameters expressed better predictive qualities, especially for price-mass relation (R² > 0.8). While for ploughs power and mass relation had a primary output (R² = 0.7). The prediction features of the models provided reliable results for the estimation of the indicative values of the price and parameters of the implements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]