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Cyber–physical systems (CPSs) are evolving from individual systems to collectives of systems that collaborate to achieve highly complex goals, realizing a cyber–physical system of systems (CPSoSs) approach. They are heterogeneous systems comprising various autonomous CPSs, each with unique performance capabilities, priorities, and pursued goals. In practice, there are significant challenges in the applicability and usability of CPSoSs that need to be addressed. The decentralization of CPSoSs assigns tasks to individual CPSs within the system of systems. All CPSs should harmonically pursue system-based achievements and collaborate to make system-of-system-based decisions and implement the CPSoS functionality. The automotive domain is transitioning to the system of systems approach, aiming to provide a series of emergent functionalities like traffic management, collaborative car fleet management, or large-scale automotive adaptation to the physical environment, thus providing significant environmental benefits and achieving significant societal impact. Similarly, large infrastructure domains are evolving into global, highly integrated cyber–physical systems of systems, covering all parts of the value chain. This survey provides a comprehensive review of current best practices in connected cyber–physical systems and investigates a dual-layer architecture entailing perception and behavioral components. The presented perception layer entails object detection, cooperative scene analysis, cooperative localization and path planning, and human-centric perception. The behavioral layer focuses on human-in-the-loop (HITL)-centric decision making and control, where the output of the perception layer assists the human operator in making decisions while monitoring the operator's state. Finally, an extended overview of digital twin (DT) paradigms is provided so as to simulate, realize, and optimize large-scale CPSoS ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the current state of the art and the related research on the automated detection and tracking of small objects—or persons—in the context of a person-overboard (POB) scenario and present the associated governing relationship between different technologies, platforms, and approaches as a system of systems. A novel phase model, structuring a POB scenario, comprises three phases: (1) detection, (2) search and track, and (3) rescue. Within these phases, we identify the central areas of responsibility and describe in detail the phases (1) and (2). We emphasize the importance of a high-level representation of different systems and their interactions to comprehensively represent the complexity and dynamics of POB scenarios. Our systematic classification and detailed description of the technologies and methods used provide valuable insights to support future regulatory and research activities. Our primary aim is to advance the development of corresponding technologies and standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The vital role of extensive information exchange among stakeholders across diverse sectors and the interconnection of various scientific fields with nonhomogeneous technology readiness levels has created a new form of a complex engineering problem in the climate change era. Comprehensive sustainability assessment to enable the realization of needs requires transdisciplinary thinking to achieve systematic solutions that bridge the gap between multiple collaborative systems in a portfolio. Although the principal aim of dedicated sustainability regulations is to force companies to move toward sustainability development, general and non-engineered metrics that have not defined clear thresholds for evaluation have encountered severe challenges regarding implementation and economic viability. Therefore, adopting a transdisciplinary systems engineering approach can address multifaceted challenges like sustainability by overcoming collaboration barriers, and traditional disciplinary limits. This paper systematically reviews sustainability-dictated regulations from a transdisciplinary perspective. Different standards are compared, raised opportunities and challenges are discussed, and future remarks are highlighted. The sustainability problem is analyzed from a transdisciplinary systems engineering lens. Finally, a two-level resilient system sustainability assessment framework is proposed to effectively handle and enhance the resilience of companies' sustainability development roadmaps by enabling decision makers to find robust and highly reliable solutions regarding sustainable system design. The impact of this research is to create a new insight into addressing climate change which not only assesses the current situation but also considers uncertainty sources that affect decision making for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today's increasingly complex energy systems require innovative approaches to integrate and optimize different energy sources and technologies. In this paper, we explore the system of systems (SoS) approach, which provides a comprehensive framework for improving energy systems' interoperability, efficiency, and resilience. By examining recent advances in various sectors, including photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles, energy storage, renewable energy, smart cities, and rural communities, this study highlights the essential role of SoSs in addressing the challenges of the energy transition. The principal areas of interest include the integration of advanced control algorithms and machine learning techniques and the development of robust communication networks to manage interactions between interconnected subsystems. This study also identifies significant challenges associated with large-scale SoS implementation, such as real-time data processing, decision-making complexity, and the need for harmonized regulatory frameworks. This study outlines future directions for improving the intelligence and autonomy of energy subsystems, which are essential for achieving a sustainable, resilient, and adaptive energy infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spain has one of Europe's most extraordinary biodiverse environments and a significant risk of fires in its forests. At the same time, rural areas are affected by several challenges, such as desertification, population decrease, and loss of income. Fortunately, some green sparks arise on the horizon. Among them, we use critical enabling technologies for fire prevention and extinction, renewable energy, and resilience solutions by adopting a system of systems approach given by the systems engineering frameworks. We analyse recent Research and Development (R&D) projects focused on fire prevention to detect (1) the key enabling technologies used and (2) engineering practices. A motivational case is presented, which evaluates the potential interest of the mineral water industry sector in applied R&D with key enabling technologies, including the replicability potential and the replicability potential for using the R&D results. After that, the authors initialize an innovative R-ISSUES model to promote early interoperability between energy and environment systems engineering towards the shared mission of designing digital and rural jobs to preserve our biosphere. The model is used to answer specific research questions and detect gaps or potential improvements for the model itself by using the recent scientific literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The U.S. National Parks encompass a variety of biophysical and historical resources important for national cultural heritage. Yet how these resources are socially constructed often depends on the beholder. Parks tend to be conceptualized according to their (fixed) geographic context, so our understanding of this system of systems is dominated by this geographic lens. To expose the systemic structure that exists beyond their geographic embedding, we analyze three representations of the National Park System using park–park similarity networks according to their cooccurrence in (1) about 423,000 news media articles; (2) about 11,000 research publications; and (3) about 60,000 species inhabiting parks. We quantify structural variation between network representations by leveraging similarity measures at different scales: park level (park–park correlations) and system level (network communities' consistency). Because parks are governed and experienced at multiple scales, cross-network comparison informs how management should account for the varying objectives and constraints that dominate at each scale. Our results identify an interesting paradox: Whereas park-level correlations depend strongly on the representative lens, the network communities are remarkably robust and consistent with the underlying geographic embedding. Our data-driven methodology is generalizable to other geographically embedded socioenvironmental systems and supports the holistic analysis of systems-level structure that might elude other approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2022 and 2023, the Director Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E) published the DOT&E Test and Evaluation (T&E) Strategy Update (DOT&E, 2022) and the DOT&E Strategy Implementation Plan (DOT&E, 2023). These documents introduce the need to reimagine T&E in a way that strongly emphasizes the operational and mission context in which systems under test are expected to perform throughout the capability lifecycle. Through the Acquisition Innovation Research Center (AIRC), DOT&E contracted the Virginia Tech Applied Research Corporation (VT-ARC), in partnership with Virginia Tech National Security Institute (VTNSI), to develop a Joint Test Concept (JTC) in support of the Implementation Plan. The JTC effort recognizes that traditional test and evaluation (T&E) capabilities must be stretched further than ever before, shifting the way we think about system performance and how T&E contributes to the overall assessment of measures and outcomes aligned with complex mission webs and Joint system of systems. Critical to this effort is the collaborative approach to the JTC study design and the T&E stakeholders represented in the community of interest (COI). The JTC recognizes systems under test are likely a part of a system of systems capability lifecycle which requires the application of a capability lifecycle campaign of learning that delves into critical layer questions focused on a system functional focus, a service mission focus, a system of systems capability focus, and a Joint all-domain mission focus. The JTC primary functions (design a campaign of learning strategy, develop a campaign of learning data strategy, monitor for decision points, refine T&E event plan, execute event, and update strategies), enable an iterative approach to answering key T&E questions and support milestone decisions along the capability lifecycle. Next steps involve leveraging simulation exercises to stress the JTC Pilot and workshops to develop an implementation roadmap, ultimately culminating in the publication of the JTC v1.0. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Quality management (QM) can support organisations in contributing to sustainable development. As a result of an expanding focus from customers towards stakeholders within QM, the perspectives to consider multiply. Understanding how practices and tools for process management are specifically affected by this increase in perspectives is key to creating the right conditions for improvement initiatives that support sustainable development. Design/methodology/approach: This paper constructs a typology wherein the use of process management practices and tools is described in nine distinguished system contexts. Inductive discrimination is used to differentiate the system contexts and different use cases for process practices and tools. Findings: Using the system of systems grid (SOSG), mainstream business process management (BPM) practices are positioned in a simple unitary context, whilst sustainability challenges also involve more complex contexts. Addressing these challenges requires integrating new tools and methods from paradigms outside of traditional functionalist business process management practices. Research limitations/implications: This paper highlights the necessity to consider system contexts when developing feasible practices and tools for effective process management. Practical implications: Practical implications are that quality practitioners aiming to exploit the potential in process management to support sustainability get support for planning and conducting process improvement initiatives aiming to consider several stakeholder perspectives. Originality/value: This paper presents a new typology for understanding the context of QM process initiatives and BPM in light of a contemporary sustainability focus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a method for creating the system architecture of existing industrial objects based on Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) principles. The method aims to form a digital representation of physical objects, which is crucial in the digital transformation of industrial enterprises. It allows for the accurate reflection of all components, processes, functions, and interrelationships within an object. The methodology includes stages of data collection, structuring, development of ontological models, and the integration of a comprehensive system architecture into the digital space. This method was tested using a small hydroelectric power plant, revealing its key advantages and disadvantages and identifying areas for further improvement. The main findings indicate a significant improvement in understanding the system architecture for scenario modeling and digital operation of the objects. Despite challenges such as the need for multiple iterations and high data requirements, the methodology demonstrates the potential for applying MBSE in the digital transformation of existing industrial objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Communication between connected objects in the Internet of Things (IoT) often requires secure and reliable authentication mechanisms to verify identities of entities and prevent unauthorized access to sensitive data and resources. Unlike other domains, IoT offers several advantages and opportunities, such as the ability to collect real-time data through numerous sensors. These data contains valuable information about the environment and other objects that, if used, can significantly enhance authentication processes. In this paper, we propose a novel idea to building opportunistic sensor-based authentication factors by leveraging existing IoT sensors in a system of systems approach. The objective is to highlight the promising prospects of opportunistic authentication factors in enhancing IoT security. We claim that sensors can be utilized to create additional authentication factors, thereby reinforcing existing object-to-object authentication mechanisms. By integrating these opportunistic sensor-based authentication factors into multi-factor authentication schemes, IoT security can be substantially improved. We demonstrate the feasibility and effectivenness of our idea through illustrative experiments in a parking entry scenario, involving both mobile robots and cars, achieving high identification accuracy. We highlight the potential of this novel method to improve IoT security and suggest future research directions for formalizing and comparing our approach with existing techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The healthcare system is grappling with inherent challenges, functioning akin to a fragmented cottage‐like industry, leading to significant cost implications and compromised care quality. This paper employs a systematic approach to scrutinize the Healthcare Delivery System (HDS) comprehensively, categorizing it as a Collaborative System of Systems (SoS), where multiple independent systems operate collectively, maintaining individual autonomy. Through a detailed examination, we identify the Collaborative SoS nature of the current healthcare system as the primary cause of its fragmentation. We address a gap in the current literature on the characteristics of SoS, focusing on the often‐overlooked aspect of dependence and exploring why constituent systems collaborate to achieve common objectives. Then, we propose a hybrid SoS model where an external governing entity at the national level assumes the authority to determine objectives and drivers for the healthcare SoS. We contend that effective SoS governance is indispensable for addressing systemic issues, providing necessary coordination, allocating resources, establishing policies, fostering sustainable change, and ensuring a well‐organized and efficient healthcare system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cybertronics challenges evolve around the complexity of systems and increase in detail and data involved. Existing methods and tools can master some of the rising challenges, but a method being able to handle the challenges was not introduced yet. MBSE is a potential approach to solve these problems, but the available methods were developed for modeling physical systems and software, not cybertronics. Because of the diversity of implementation domains participating in cybertronics systems, the modeling methodology must support the holistic management of requirements, properties, and design data. This paper introduces some promising emerging technologies like Arcadia, SysML V2, SysMD and PMM, that have the potential to interact with other methods and tools, closing the gaps in requirements tracing, system modeling, documentation, and verification. One potential methodology is introduced through a design example from requirements to implementation interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stakeholders of Systems of Systems (SoSs) are seeking new capabilities provided by autonomous systems empowered by Artificial Intelligence (AI). This requires the integration of these autonomous systems into SoSs, resulting in Systems of Autonomous Systems (SoASs). SoAS architecting is different from SoS. An autonomous system can have various Levels of Autonomy (LoA) depending on its AI algorithm. Each LoA has a different impact on the organizational and technical aspects of SoAS architecting. The organizational aspect covers concerns such as managerial and operational policies, whereas the technical aspect highlights issues such as integration compatibility between systems. Failure to address the LoA impact on these aspects in the architecting phase results in an ineffective integration. In this paper, we propose a methodology that follows the SoS hierarchical lexicon, builds upon the steps of the Object‐Oriented Systems Engineering Method (OOSEM), and leverages the Unified Architecture Framework (UAF) for modeling autonomy integration. The proposed methodology adds detailed sub‐steps to OOSEM in order to make it suitable for SoS evolution into SoAS. We also introduce the required UAF views for modeling each aspect of the SoAS architecture. This methodology lays the foundation for the trade study analysis that helps stakeholders decide on suitable LoAs for SoAS. We also present an illustrative example to demonstrate the implementation and effectiveness of the proposed methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the scalability of biologically inspired design‐for‐resilience heuristics in System of Systems (SoS) of varying sizes, simulating SoS with ten, twenty, and thirty constituent systems. We build upon previous research that identified thirteen design heuristics for SoS resilience based on Ecological Network Analysis (a subset of graph theory). We both extend their application to larger network sizes and combine them to enhance efficiency. Our analysis validates the application of design heuristics for random networks to evaluate the effectiveness of individual and combined design heuristics in network resilience compared to random network modifications. The outcomes provide insights into the scalability and efficiency of these heuristics, revealing the potential for systematic SoS design and resilience improvement. Key contributions of this research include the validation of the scalability of bio‐inspired resilience metrics and the testing of nine new combined design heuristics for SoS. These contributions provide a tool for decision‐makers seeking to select resilient SoS architectures. The findings also pave the way for future research into broader applications beyond ecological networks and further exploration of the relationship between ecological robustness and resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) is an array of radio telescopes around the world that uses the technique of Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) to create a virtual Earth‐sized telescope. Using this technique, the EHT released the first image of a black hole on April 10, 2019, accelerating black hole science and creating enormous public impact. Now, a team of scientists and engineers is looking ahead to the next horizon: movies of black holes. In this paper, we give an overview of how the next‐generation EHT (ngEHT) Project has adopted a systems engineering approach to the design of future improvements to the EHT array, developing clear traceability from community‐defined key science goals. Scheduling, operations, site selection, observing bandwidth, data transport, and data management are some of the many factors that require careful consideration and balance and therefore benefit from intentional systems engineering methods underpinned by a "single source of truth" system model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As digital trade continues to reshape the global economic landscape, the key objective of this study is to bridge a significant Legal-Technical gap characterised by the discord between rapid technological advancements and slower-evolving legal frameworks. This paper delves into the complexities of this gap and emphasises the need for a holistic approach to understand and address the multifaceted challenges it presents to businesses, policymakers, and the broader international trading system. This research offers a novel theoretical foundation for exploring and bridging the Legal-Technical gap in digital trade. Initially, it discusses the integration of legal and technical knowledge systems, which leads to the emergence of specific transdisciplinary knowledge as described by Andrew Sage's Theory of Systems. Subsequently, it explores the acquisition of universal knowledge about these systems through Herman Dooyeweerd's multi-aspectual philosophy. Furthermore, it proposes the development of a transdisciplinary knowledge representation using Fritz Zwicky's Morphological Method. Our analysis reveals that focusing on lingual, social, economic, and aesthetic aspects enables the prioritisation of critical factors essential for enhancing legal-technical functionality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interoperability stands as a critical hurdle in developing and overseeing distributed and collaborative systems. Thus, it becomes imperative to gain a deep comprehension of the primary obstacles hindering interoperability and the essential criteria that systems must satisfy to achieve it. In light of this objective, in the initial phase of this research, we conducted a survey questionnaire involving stakeholders and practitioners engaged in distributed and collaborative systems. This effort resulted in the identification of eight essential interoperability requirements, along with their corresponding challenges. Then, the second part of our study encompassed a critical review of the literature to assess the effectiveness of prevailing conceptual approaches and associated technologies in addressing the identified requirements. This analysis led to the identification of a set of components that promise to deliver the desired interoperability by addressing the requirements identified earlier. These elements subsequently form the foundation for the third part of our study, a reference architecture for interoperability-fostering frameworks that is proposed in this paper. The results of our research can significantly impact the software engineering of interoperable systems by introducing their fundamental requirements and the best practices to address them, but also by identifying the key elements of a framework facilitating interoperability in Systems of Systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interoperability is a central problem in digitization and System of Systems (SoS) engineering, which concerns the capacity of systems to exchange information and cooperate. The task to dynamically establish interoperability between heterogeneous cyber-physical systems (CPSs) at run-time is a challenging problem. Different aspects of the interoperability problem have been studied in fields such as SoS, neural translation, and agent-based systems, but there are no unifying solutions beyond domain-specific standardization efforts. The problem is complicated by the uncertain and variable relations between physical processes and human-centric symbols, which result from, e.g., latent physical degrees of freedom, maintenance, re-configurations, and software updates. Therefore, we surveyed the literature for concepts and methods needed to automatically establish SoSs with purposeful CPS communication, focusing on machine learning and connecting approaches that are not integrated in the present literature. Here, we summarize recent developments relevant to the dynamic interoperability problem, such as representation learning for ontology alignment and inference on heterogeneous linked data; neural networks for transcoding of text and code; concept learning-based reasoning; and emergent communication. We find that there has been a recent interest in deep learning approaches to establishing communication under different assumptions about the environment, language, and nature of the communicating entities. Furthermore, we present examples of architectures and discuss open problems associated with artificial intelligence (AI)-enabled solutions in relation to SoS interoperability requirements. Although these developments open new avenues for research, there are still no examples that bridge the concepts necessary to establish dynamic interoperability in complex SoSs, and realistic testbeds are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban Air Mobility (UAM) is an emerging industry marked by technological advancements, new operational contexts, and regulatory frameworks. This article examines how to improve safety management in UAM operations by adopting a just culture approach from a system of systems perspective. Acknowledging the critical role of front-line workers, especially in the early stage with piloted vehicles, the ecosystem-level approach comprehends multiple providers, operators, and services. Employing an enterprise architecture methodology, we address the challenge of fostering a learning-oriented environment amidst diverse organizational perspectives and stakeholders' interests. This study identifies key capabilities, functions, and resource exchanges within and across organizations by strategically leveraging architectural views and systemic visualizations. A unified safety committee is discussed and recommended to facilitate consensus among stakeholders, including regulatory bodies, thus paving the way for industry-wide improvements. Findings contribute to evolving safety protocols in UAM operations and serve as a blueprint for integrating cutting-edge methodologies to drive systemic enhancements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the future battlefield, unmanned combat mode will be crucial. Its attack strategy formulation is a significant and complex task. To address the issue of decisionmaking in unmanned combat system of systems(UCSoS) striking strategy, this paper begins by analyzing the characteristics of UCSoS. By utilizing the GERT concept, an unmanned combat A-GERT network is developed to provide parameter support for evaluating its effectiveness. Secondly, for effectiveness evaluation, a multi-layer gray target model built on the A-GERT network is proposed. This model is utilized to formulate the optimal striking scheme for the UCSoS. And Agent technology is employed to solve the intelligent learning decision-making problem for UCSoS based on multi-layer grey target model. Finally, a case study illustrates the efficiency and effectiveness of the reinforcement model for UCSoS based on multi-layer grey target. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the late twentieth century, the term "System of Systems" (SoS) became popular to describe a complex system made up of a combination of independent constituent systems. Since then, several studies have been conducted to support and assess SoS management, functionality, and performance. Due to the evolutionary nature of SoS and the non-composability of the security properties of its constituent systems, it is difficult to assess or evaluate SoS security. This paper provides an up-to-date survey on SoS security, aimed at stimulating and guiding further research efforts. This systematic mapping study (SMS) focuses on SoS security, privacy, and trust. Our SMS identified 1828 studies from 6 digital libraries, 87 of which were selected that presented approaches analyzing, evaluating, or improving security. We classified these studies using nine research questions that focused on the nature of the studies, the studied SoS, or the study validation. After examining the selected studies, we identified six gaps and as many future work directions. More precisely, we observed that few studies examine SoS problems and instead propose specific solutions, making it challenging to develop generalizable approaches. Furthermore, the lack of standardization has hindered the reuse of existing approaches, making it difficult for solutions to be generalized to other SoS. In addition, the lack of descriptions of industrial environments in the literature makes it difficult to design realistic validation environments. As a result, the validation of new SoS research remains a challenge in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computer simulation has been in the toolkit of industrial engineers for over 50 years and its value has been enhanced by advances in research, including both modeling and analysis, and in application software, both commercial and open source. However, "advances" are different from paradigm shifts. Motivated by big data, big computing and the big consequences of model-based decisions, it is time to reboot simulation for industrial engineering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Energy communities facilitate several advantages, including energy autonomy, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, poverty mitigation, and regional economic development. They also empower citizens with decision-making and co-ownership prospects in community renewable projects. Integrating renewable energy sources and sector coupling is a crucial strategy for flexible energy systems. However, demonstrating clean energy transition scenarios in these communities presents challenges, including technology integration, flexibility activation, load reduction, grid resilience, and business case development. Methods Based on the system of systems approach, this paper introduces a 4-step funnel approach and a 4-step reverse funnel approach to systematically specify and detail demonstration scenarios for energy community projects. The funnel approach involves four steps. First, it selects demonstration scenarios promoting energy-efficient state-of-the-art renewable technologies and storage systems, flexibility through demand side management techniques, reduced grid dependence, and economic viability. Second, it lists all existing and planned project technologies, analysing energy flows. Third, it plans actions at different levels to implement the demonstration scenarios. Fourth, it validates the strategies using key performance indicators (KPI) to quantify the effectiveness of the planned measures. Furthermore, the reverse funnel approach delves deeper into the demonstration scenarios. The four steps involve identifying stakeholder perspectives, describing scenario scopes, listing conditions for realisation, and outlining business models, including value chains and economic assumptions. Results This approach provides a detailed analysis of the demonstration scenarios, considering actors, objectives, boundary conditions, and business assumptions. The methodologies are exemplified in three diverse European energy communities extending across residential, commercial, tertiary, and industrial establishments, allowing power-to-x and sector coupling opportunities. The paper also suggested thirteen KPIs for validating renewable-focused energy community projects. Conclusions Finally, the paper recommends increased collaboration between energy communities, knowledge sharing, stakeholder engagement, transparent data collection and analysis, continuous feedback, and method improvement to mitigate policy, technology, business, and market uncertainties.

Today’s increasingly complex energy systems require innovative approaches to integrate and optimize different energy sources and technologies. In this paper, we explore the system of systems (SoS) approach, which provides a comprehensive framework for improving energy systems’ interoperability, efficiency, and resilience. By examining recent advances in various sectors, including photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles, energy storage, renewable energy, smart cities, and rural communities, this study highlights the essential role of SoSs in addressing the challenges of the energy transition. The principal areas of interest include the integration of advanced control algorithms and machine learning techniques and the development of robust communication networks to manage interactions between interconnected subsystems. This study also identifies significant challenges associated with large-scale SoS implementation, such as real-time data processing, decision-making complexity, and the need for harmonized regulatory frameworks. This study outlines future directions for improving the intelligence and autonomy of energy subsystems, which are essential for achieving a sustainable, resilient, and adaptive energy infrastructure.