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The coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR) is an essential multifunctional cellular protein that is only beginning to be understood. CAR serves as a receptor for many adenoviruses, human group B coxsackieviruses, swine vesicular disease virus, and possibly other viruses. While named for its function as a viral receptor, CAR is also involved in cell adhesion, immune cell activation, synaptic transmission, and signaling. Knockout mouse models were first to identify some of these biological functions; however, tissue-specific model systems have shed light on the complexity of different CAR isoforms and their specific activities. Many of these functions are mediated by the large number of interacting proteins described so far, and several new putative interactions have recently been discovered. As antiviral and gene therapy strategies that target CAR continue to emerge, future work poised to understand the biological implications of manipulating CAR in vivo is critical.

A review of African swine fever (ASF) was conducted, including manifestations of disease, its transmission and environmental persistence of ASF virus. Findings on infectious doses of contemporary highly-pathogenic strains isolated from outbreaks in Eastern Europe were included. Published data on disinfectant susceptibility of ASF virus were then compared with similar findings for selected other infectious agents, principally those used in the UK disinfectant approvals tests relating to relevant Disease Orders for the control of notifiable and zoonotic diseases of livestock. These are: swine vesicular disease virus, foot and mouth disease virus, Newcastle disease virus and Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. The comparative data thus obtained, presented in a series of charts, facilitated estimates of efficacy against ASF virus for some UK approved disinfectants when applied at their respective General Orders concentrations. Substantial data gaps were encountered for several disinfectant agents or classes, including peracetic acid, quaternary ammonium compounds and products based on phenols and cresols.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) and classical swine fever virus (CSFV) all cause important animal diseases. FMDV affects many different cloven-hoofed animals, whereas SVDV and CSFV are restricted to domestic and feral pigs together with wild boar. Europe is normally free of these diseases, but occasionally outbreaks happen, which can cause huge economic losses. Handling of these viruses, in particular FMDV and CSFV, is only allowed within high containment laboratories and stables. Periodically such facilities need to be decommissioned for repair or closing down, which is done by cleaning and chemical disinfection, followed by fumigation due to residual risk from virus on surfaces in inaccessible places. However, building materials in older laboratories or stables that have housed infected animals may not be well-suited for fumigation. Heat treatment is another way of inactivating viruses. In this study, we have determined the survival of infectivity in air-dried virus samples on glass and plastic surfaces incubated at room temperature or heated to 70 °C for 1, 2, 3, 5 and 7 days. Each of the tested viruses was inactivated to below the limit of detection after 24 h or 48 h of incubation at 70 °C; in contrast, some of these viruses were still infectious after 7 days of incubation at room temperature. This study provides important information that can be used in relation to decontamination of buildings and in risk-assessments.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is the causative agent of a highly contagious viral disease that affects multiple cloven-hooved hosts including important livestock (pigs, cattle, sheep and goats) as well as several wild animal species. Crossover of FMDV between domestic and wildlife populations may prolong virus circulation during outbreaks. The wild boar (Sus scrofa) is considered a reservoir of various pathogens that can infect other wildlife, domestic animals, and humans. As wild boar and domestic pigs are susceptible to the same pathogens and can infect each other, infected wild boar populations may represent a threat to the pig industry and to international trade. The ncRNAs are synthetic non-coding RNA transcripts, mimicking structural domains in the FMDV genome, known to exert a broad-spectrum antiviral and immunomodulatory effect in swine, bovine and mice cells. Here, we show the type I interferon-dependent, robust and broad range antiviral activity induced by the ncRNAs in a cell line derived from wild boar lung cells (WSL). Transfection of WSL cells with the ncRNAs exerted a protective effect against infection with FMDV, vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) and African swine fever virus (ASFV). Our results prove the biological activity of the ncRNAs in cells of an FMDV wild animal host species against a variety of viruses affecting pigs, including relevant viral pathogens of epizootic risk., MINECO), 201820I019 (CSIC), and S2018/BAA-4370 (co-financed by Autonomous Community of Madrid and EC FEDER funds). RH was the holder of NAHEP, CAAST-ACLH grants of ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute

Introduction: The extremely high genetic variation and the continuously emerging variants of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) of Southern African Territory (SAT) serotypes including SAT1, SAT2, and SAT3 make it necessary to develop a new RT-PCR for general use for monitoring viruses based on the updated genome information. Material and Methods: A FMDV SAT-D8 one-step RT-PCR was established based on the 1D2A2B genes of the SAT serotype viruses with a multiplex primer set. FMDV A, O, C, and Asia 1 serotypes, other vesicular disease viruses, inactivated SAT viruses, and 125 bovine, ovine, caprine and porcine tissue samples collected from the Chinese mainland were included for evaluating the assay. Results: The new RT-PCR was proven to be specific without cross-reactions with Eurasian FMDV, swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), Seneca valley virus (SVV), or other common viral pathogens of cattle, sheep, goat, and pig. An around 257 bp-sized amplicon clearly appeared when the inactivated SAT viruses were detected. However, all 125 samples collected from FMDV-susceptible animals from the Chinese mainland which has not known SAT epidemics showed negative results. Conclusions: A FMDV SAT-D8 one-step RT-PCR is a promising method for primary screening for FMDV SAT serotypes.

Summary Microarray technology can be useful for pathogen detection as it allows simultaneous interrogation of the presence or absence of a large number of genetic signatures. However, most microarray assays are labour‐intensive and time‐consuming to perform. This study describes the development and initial evaluation of a multiplex reverse transcription (RT)‐PCR and novel accompanying automated electronic microarray assay for simultaneous detection and differentiation of seven important viruses that affect swine (foot‐and‐mouth disease virus [FMDV], swine vesicular disease virus [SVDV], vesicular exanthema of swine virus [VESV], African swine fever virus [ASFV], classical swine fever virus [CSFV], porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus [PRRSV] and porcine circovirus type 2 [PCV2]). The novel electronic microarray assay utilizes a single, user‐friendly instrument that integrates and automates capture probe printing, hybridization, washing and reporting on a disposable electronic microarray cartridge with 400 features. This assay accurately detected and identified a total of 68 isolates of the seven targeted virus species including 23 samples of FMDV, representing all seven serotypes, and 10 CSFV strains, representing all three genotypes. The assay successfully detected viruses in clinical samples from the field, experimentally infected animals (as early as 1 day post‐infection (dpi) for FMDV and SVDV, 4 dpi for ASFV, 5 dpi for CSFV), as well as in biological material that were spiked with target viruses. The limit of detection was 10 copies/μl for ASFV, PCV2 and PRRSV, 100 copies/μl for SVDV, CSFV, VESV and 1,000 copies/μl for FMDV. The electronic microarray component had reduced analytical sensitivity for several of the target viruses when compared with the multiplex RT‐PCR. The integration of capture probe printing allows custom onsite array printing as needed, while electrophoretically driven hybridization generates results faster than conventional microarrays that rely on passive hybridization. With further refinement, this novel, rapid, highly automated microarray technology has potential applications in multipathogen surveillance of livestock diseases.

Human echovirus 18 (E-18) is a member of the enterovirus B species. To date, sixteen full-length genome sequences of E-18 are available in the GenBank database. In this study, we describe the complete genomic characterization of two E-18 strains isolated in Yunnan, China. Pairwise comparisons of the nucleotide sequences and the deduced amino acid sequences revealed that the two Yunnan E-18 strains had 87.5% nucleotide identity and 96.3–96.5% amino acid identity with the Chinese strain. Phylogenetic and bootscanning analyses revealed the two E-18 strains had the highest identity with other several EV-B serotypes than the other E-18 strains in the P3 coding region, especially, 3B region of the Swine Vesicular disease virus (SVDV) strain HK70, indicated that frequent intertypic recombination might have occurred in the two Yunnan strains. This study contributes the complete genome sequences of E-18 to the GenBank database and provides valuable information on the molecular epidemiology of E-18 in China.

Aims In a laboratory, disinfectants used to inactivate pathogens on contaminated surfaces and to prevent spread of diseases often have adverse side effects on personnel and the environment. It is, therefore, essential to find safer, fast-acting and yet effective disinfectants. The objective of this study was to evaluate an accelerated hydrogen peroxide® (AHP®)-based disinfectant against high consequence foreign animal disease pathogens such as foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) and swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), as well as Senecavirus A (SVA), which causes similar lesions as FMDV and SVDV. Methods and Results We tested varying dilutions and contact times of AHP against FMDV, SVDV and SVA by the standard US EPA and modified methods. AHP was effective against all three viruses, albeit at a higher concentration and double the manufacturer recommended contact time when testing wet films of SVDV. Conclusions AHP is an effective disinfectant against FMDV, SVDV and SVA. Significance and Impact of the Study AHP-based disinfectant can, therefore, be used in high containment laboratories working with FMDV, SVDV and related pathogens.

Antiviral compounds targeting cellular metabolism instead of virus components have become an interesting issue for preventing and controlling the spread of virus infection, either as sole treatment or as a complement of vaccination. Some of these compounds are involved in the control of lipid metabolism and/or membrane rearrangements. Here, we describe the effect of three of these cell-targeting antivirals: lauryl gallate (LG), valproic acid (VPA), and cerulenin (CRL) in the multiplication of viruses causing important porcine diseases. The results confirm the antiviral action in cultured cells of LG against African swine fever virus (ASFV), foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV), vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), and swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), as well as the inhibitory effect of VPA and CRL on ASFV infection. Other gallate esters have been also assayed for their inhibition of FMDV growth. The combined action of these antivirals has been also tested in ASFV infections, with some synergistic effects when LG and VPA were co-administered. Regarding the mode of action of the antivirals, experiments on the effect of the time of its addition in infected cell cultures indicated that the inhibition by VPA and CRL occurred at early times after ASFV infection, while LG inhibited a late step in FMDV infection. In all the cases, the presence of the antiviral reduced or abolished the induction of virus-specific proteins. Interestingly, LG also reduced mortality and FMDV load in a mouse model. The possible use of cell-targeted antivirals against porcine diseases is discussed., Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (2011-20E112), Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (AGL2014-52395-C2-1-R and AGL2017-84097-C2-1-R), the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement 311931-ASForce, Comunidad de Madrid co-financed with ECFEDER funds (S20149/ABI-2906-PLATESA; P2018/BAA-4370-PLATESA-CM), and by institutional grants from the Fundación Ramón Areces and Banco Santander Universidades

Background Seneca Valley virus (SVV) has emerged in multiple countries in recent years. SVV infection can cause vesicular lesions clinically indistinguishable from those caused by other vesicular disease viruses, such as foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), and vesicular exanthema of swine virus (VESV). Sensitive and specific RT-PCR assays for the SVV detection is necessary for differential diagnosis. Real-time RT-PCR (rRT-PCR) has been used for the detection of many RNA viruses. The insulated isothermal PCR (iiPCR) on a portable POCKIT™ device is user friendly for on-site pathogen detection. In the present study, SVV rRT-PCR and RT-iiPCR were developed and validated. Results Neither the SVV rRT-PCR nor the RT-iiPCR cross-reacted with any of the vesicular disease viruses (20 FMDV, two SVDV, six VSV, and two VESV strains), classical swine fever virus (four strains), and 15 other common swine viruses. Analytical sensitivities of the SVV rRT-PCR and RT-iiPCR were determined using serial dilutions of in vitro transcribed RNA as well as viral RNA extracted from a historical SVV isolate and a contemporary SVV isolate. Diagnostic performances were further evaluated using 125 swine samples by two approaches. First, nucleic acids were extracted from the 125 samples using the MagMAX™ kit and then tested by both RT-PCR methods. One sample was negative by the rRT-PCR but positive by the RT-iiPCR, resulting in a 99.20% agreement (124/125; 95% CI: 96.59–100%, κ = 0.98). Second, the 125 samples were tested by the taco™ mini extraction/RT-iiPCR and by the MagMAX™ extraction/rRT-PCR system in parallel. Two samples were positive by the MagMAX™/rRT-PCR system but negative by the taco™ mini/RT-iiPCR system, resulting in a 98.40% agreement (123/125; 95% CI: 95.39–100%, κ = 0.97). The two samples with discrepant results had relatively high CT values. Conclusions The SVV rRT-PCR and RT-iiPCR developed in this study are very sensitive and specific and have comparable diagnostic performances for SVV RNA detection. The SVV rRT-PCR can be adopted for SVV detection in laboratories. The SVV RT-iiPCR in a simple field-deployable system could serve as a tool to help diagnose vesicular diseases in swine at points of need.

Picornaviruses are small, roughly spherical viruses with a protein shell. The picornavirus genome includes two untranslated regions, one preceding and one following the single open reading frame (ORF). The ORF is translated into a polyprotein that is usually processed by one or two virus-encoded proteinases. The variety of diseases caused by picornaviruses ranges from acute and sometimes fatal paralysis to mild respiratory disease and to inapparent infections in many hosts. Foot-and-mouth disease is a severe, clinically acute vesicular disease of cloven-hoofed animals, including domesticated and wild swine and ruminants. Swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) is classified as an enterovirus within the family Picornaviridae and belongs to the species Enterovirus B. Like other picornaviruses, SVDV is non-enveloped. Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) were subsequently detected in a variety of animal species. The impact of EMCV on public health is believed to be minimal.

Binary ethylenimine (BEI) has been widely used as a virucide to inactivate viruses. For regulatory exclusion of a select agent, the United States Federal Select Agent Program (FSAP) requires an inactivation procedure that renders a select agent non-viable but allows the select agent to retain antigenic characteristics for future use must be validated, and the inactivated agent must be confirmed by a viability testing. In this curve-based validation study, we examined impacts of BEI concentration, treatment temperature, and time on our in-house inactivation procedures of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV), Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV), and Swine Vesicular Disease Virus (SVDV). The inactivation efficacy was confirmed by virus titration and 3 consecutive blind passages on the monolayers of susceptible cells. A linear correlation between the virus titer reduction and BEI concentration, treatment time, and temperature was established. The results confirmed our in-house BEI inactivation procedure of two doses of 1.5 mM BEI treatment at 37 °C, 1st dose for 24 h, then 2nd dose for 6 more hours for a total of 30 h BEI contact time, can ensure complete inactivation of FMDV, VSV, and SVDV.

Swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) emerged around 1960 from a human enterovirus ancestor, coxsackievirus B5 (CVB5), and caused a series of epizootics in Europe and Asia. We characterized a coxsackievirus B4 strain that caused an epizootic involving 24 488 pigs in the Soviet Union in 1975. Phylogenetic evidence suggested that the swine virus emerged from a human ancestor between 1945 and 1975, almost simultaneously with the transfer of CVB5.

During the last 25 years, swine vesicular disease (SVD) has occurred in Italy mostly sub-clinically. Therefore, regular testing of fecal samples from suspected holdings and high turnover premises was fundamental to identifying virus circulation and to achieve SVD eradication. In this study, we evaluated diagnostic performances of six genomic amplification methods, using positive fecal samples from 78 different outbreaks (1997&ndash, 2014), which included different lineages. Comparison of three RT-PCRs, designed to amplify the same 154 nt portion of the gene 3D, demonstrated that a conventional and a real-time based on SYBR Green detection assay showed the highest diagnostic sensitivity, detecting all samples, while a real-time TaqMan-based test missed three cases, owing to two mismatches in the probe target sequence. Diagnostic and analytical specificities were optimal, as 300 negative field samples and other enteroviruses reacted negative. Three further evaluated tests, previously described, were a 3D-targeted reverse transcriptase loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) and two real-time RT-PCRs targeted on the 5&prime, UTR region. Here, the presence of multiple mismatches in probe and primers reduced the diagnostic performances, and two of the assays were unable to detect viruses from one sub-lineage. These results highlight that the choice of tests using less nucleotide targets significantly contributed to the success of the SVD eradication plan.

In order to establish a high-throughput identification technique that simultaneously detects six major pathogens including APP, HPS, PRRSV, Mhp, PCV-2 and CSFV, six pairs of primers and probes were designed based on the specific conservative sequences of the pathogens, a multiplex PCR system was developed, hybrid parameters were optimized, and evaluation of the technology was performed. The results showed that the present detection method had a sensitivity of 5.8 × 102copies/μL for APP, 7.8 × 103 copies/μL for HPS, 6.8 × 103 copies/μL for Mhp, 6.3 × 102 copies/μL for PCV-2, 4.8 × 103 copies/μL for PRRSV, and 5.5 × 102 copies/μL for CSFV, respectively; and it produced no cross reaction against the other nine pathogens like swine-origin pseudorabies virus, porcine parvovirus, Japanese B encephalitis virus, swine vesicular disease virus, vesicular stomatitis virus, foot-and-mouth disease virus, bluetongue virus, peste des petits ruminants virus and salmonella. Application of the multiplex oligonucleotide microarray established here to testing 285 clinical blood samples indicated a single infection rate of 18.2 % (52/285) and a mixed infection rate of 6.3 % (18/285) which were consistent with the results of the sequencing verification. This technique might serve as a rapid and high-throughput method of detection for epidemic investigation and clinical diagnosis of multiple pathogens.

Coxsackievirus (CV)-B5 is a common human enterovirus reported worldwide; swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) is a porcine variant of CV-B5. To clarify the transmission dynamics and molecular basis of host switching between CV-B5 and SVDV, we analysed and compared the VP1 and partial 3Dpol gene regions of these two viruses. Spatiotemporal dynamics of viral transmission were estimated using a Bayesian statistical inference framework. The detected selection events were used to analyse the key molecules associated with host switching. Analyses of VP1 sequences revealed six CV-B5 genotypes (A1–A4 and B1–B2) and three SVDV genotypes (I–III). Analyses of partial 3Dpol revealed five clusters (A–E). The genotypes evolved sequentially over different periods, albeit with some overlap. The major hub of CV-B5 transmission was in China whereas the major hubs of SVDV transmission were in Italy. Network analysis based on deduced amino acid sequences showed a diverse extension of the VP1 structural protein, whereas most sequences were clustered into two haplotypes in the partial 3Dpol region. Residue 178 of VP1 showed four epistatic interactions with residues known to play essential roles in viral host tropism, cell entry, and viral decoating.

Background Nano-PCR is a recent tool that is used in viral diseases diagnosis. The technique depends on the fundamental effects of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and is considered a very effective and sensitive tool in the diagnosis of different diseases including viral diseases. Although several techniques are currently available to diagnose foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV), a highly sensitive, highly specific technique is needed for specific diagnosis of the disease. In the present work, a novel AuNPs biosensor has been designed using thiol-linked oligonucleotides that recognize the conserved 3D gene of FMDV. Results The AuNPs-FMDV biosensor specifically recognizes RNA standards of FMDV, but not that of swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) isolates. The analytical sensitivity of the AuNPs-FMDV biosensor was 10 copy number RNA standards in RT-PCR and 1 copy number RNA standard in real-time rRT-PCR with a 94.5% efficiency, 0.989 R2, a − 3.544 slope and 100% specificity (no cross-reactivity with SVDV). These findings were confirmed by the specific and sensitive recognition of 31 Egyptian FMDV clinical isolates that represents the three FMDV serotypes (O, A, and SAT2). Conclusions The AuNPs-FMDV biosensor presents in this study demonstrates a superior analytical and clinical performance for FMDV diagnosis. In addition, this biosensor has a simple workflow and accelerates epidemiological surveillance, hence, it is qualified as an efficient FMDV diagnosis tool for quarantine stations and farms particularly in FMDV endemic areas. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12951-018-0374-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) replication assay in IB-RS-2, SK-6, and PK-15 cell cultures was performed using the xCELLigence system. The cell status was monitored by impedance measurement, expressed as cell index (CI). Proliferation of particular cells was examined at the beginning of the study. The cells exhibited the ability to form a monolayer, and the CI values increased with the cell culture growth. After about 23 h and while still in the growth phase, the cells were infected with decimal virus dilutions (10-1-10-6) containing from 100 000 to 1 median tissue culture infectious doses (TCID50). SVDV replication in cell cultures induced a change in cell index; together with the occurrence of cytopathic effect (CPE), the CI values declined. A significant correlation between the concentration of the virus used and CPE occurrence was found. The results also enabled determination of cell sensitivity to SVDV infection. The highest sensitivity was exhibited by IB-RS-2, followed by SK-6. To conclude, the xCELLigence System was used effectively and evaluated as being an efficient tool for CPE detection and SVDV replication analysis in cell cultures. Compared to the standard method , it enabled a more precise assessment of viral replication based on the quantitative CI measurement, providing additional current information.

Summary Classical swine fever (CSF) is an OIE-listed disease that can have a severe impact on the swine industry. User-friendly, sensitive, rapid diagnostic tests that utilize low-cost field-deployable instruments for CSF diagnosis can be useful for disease surveillance and outbreak monitoring. In this study, we describe validation of a new probe-based insulated isothermal reverse transcriptase PCR (iiRT-PCR) assay for rapid detection of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) on a compact, user-friendly device (POCKIT™ Nucleic Acid Analyzer) that does not need data interpretation by the user. The assay accurately detected CSFV RNA from a diverse panel of 33 CSFV strains representing all three genotypes plus an additional in vitro-transcribed RNA from cloned sequences representing a vaccine strain. No cross-reactivity was observed with a panel of 18 viruses associated with livestock including eight other pestivirus strains (bovine viral diarrhoea virus type 1 and type 2, border disease virus, HoBi atypical pestivirus), African swine fever virus, swine vesicular disease virus, swine influenza virus, porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus, porcine circovirus 1, porcine circovirus 2, porcine respiratory coronavirus, vesicular exanthema of swine virus, bovine herpes virus type 1 and vesicular stomatitis virus. The iiRT-PCR assay accurately detected CSFV as early as 2 days post-inoculation in RNA extracted from serum samples of experimentally infected pigs, before appearance of clinical signs. The limit of detection (LOD95%) calculated by probit regression analysis was 23 copies per reaction. The assay has a sample to answer turnaround time of less than an hour using extracted RNA or diluted or low volume of neat serum. The user-friendly, compact device that automatically analyses and displays results could potentially be a useful tool for surveillance and monitoring of CSF in a disease outbreak.

A reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay was developed to rapidly detect foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype C (FMDV C). By testing 10-fold serial dilutions of FMDV C samples, sensitivity of the FMDV C RT-LAMP was found to be 10 times higher than that of conventional reverse transcription- PCR (RT-PCR). No cross-reactivity with A, Asia 1, or O FMDV or swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) indicated that FMDV C RT-LAMP may be an exciting novel method for detecting FMDV C.

Pig production in Kenya is hampered by seasonal markets. As an alternative outlet for the finished pigs, several value-added meat-processing firms have been established. Sausage, which is produced using casings derived from intestines of pigs, is one form of processed meats. Kenya imports several kgs of natural casings every year; and a recent concern is Swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), which has never been reported in Kenya, might be introduced via natural casings imported from Italy. To determine conditions (with associated probabilities) that could lead to the introduction of SVDV, a quantitative risk assessment model was developed. Using Monte Carlo simulations at 10,000 iterations, the probability of introducing SVDV was estimated to be 1.9x10-8. Based on the suggested volume of import and mitigations used in the analysis, contaminated casings derived from an estimated 0.003 (Range = 8.1x10-8 - 0.08) infected pigs will be included in the consignment each year. The critical pathway analysis revealed that rigorous surveillance programs in Italy have a potential to dramatically reduce the risk of introducing SVDV into Kenya by this route.

This study was partly supported by Secretaria de Universitats i Recerca del Departament d'Economia i Coneixement of the Generalitat de Catalunya. Author who received the award:EB. Grant number: 2014 DI 066. Full name of funder: Secretaria de Universitats i Recerca del Departament d'Economia i Coneixement of the Generalitat de Catalunya. URL funder website: universitatsirecerca.gencat.cat/ca/inici. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. APC EUROPE provided support in the form of salaries for authors EB, CR, JR and JPolo retrospectively, but did not have any additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. We want to thank the Secretaria de Universitats i Recerca del Departament d'Economia i Coneixement de la Generalitat de Catalunya (2014 DI 066) for its colaboration. Altres ajuts: DIUE/2014 DI 066 The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the SurePure Turbulator ultraviolet-C (UV-C, 254 nm wavelength) irradiation equipment on inactivation of different enveloped and non-enveloped viruses in commercially collected liquid animal plasma. Specifically, Pseudorabies virus (PRV), Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), Classical swine fever virus (CSFV), Swine influenza virus (SIV) as enveloped viruses and Porcine parvovirus (PPV), Swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV-2) and Senecavirus A (SVA) as non-enveloped viruses, were inoculated in bovine or porcine plasma and subjected to different UV-C irradiation doses (0, 750, 1500, 3000, 6000 and 9000 J/L) using an UV-C device developed for opaque liquid working under turbulent flow. The enveloped viruses tested were inactivated at < 3000 J/L of UV-C, being the dose needed to inactivate 4 log TCID (4D) of 1612 J/L for PRV,1004 J/L for PRRSV, 1953 J/L for PEDV, 1639 J/L for SIV, 1641 J/L for CSFV and 1943 J/L for BVDV. The non-enveloped viruses tended to have higher 4D values: 2161 J/L for PPV, 3223 J/L for SVA and 3708 J/L for SVDV. Because the initial viral concentration was

Background and Aims: Accurate and rapid diagnosis is necessary for effective control and prevention of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). In present study, was evaluated real time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) assay along with diagnostic routine methods for the detection of all seven serotypes of FMD virus (FMDV), namely O, C, A, SAT1, 2, 3 and Asia 1 in biological samples at the reference laboratory for FMD, Iran. Materials and Methods: Two different RT-PCR assays targeting two different regions 5´ untranslated region (5´-UTR) and RNA polymerase (3D) of the FMDV genome were used to confirm the presence of FMDV in epithelial suspensions. Results: In the two methods the viral RNA in all tested archival serotypes of FMDV were detected. Specificity of this reaction was confirmed by the use of swine vesicular disease virus and blue-tongue. The amount of cycle threshold (CT) value of all seven serotypes was different and the lowest and highest of CT value achieved for SAT3, A, O types and SAT2, C types, respectively. Conclusion: The results showed that RT-PCR was more sensitive and effective than routine diagnostic methods. Furthermore, RT-PCR as a strong and valuable tool concomitant with diagnostic routine methods facilitate monitoring the fields FMDV strains and suggested that the use of the multiple diagnostic targets could enhance the sensitivity of the molecular methods for the detection of FMDV.

Ozan, Emre/0000-0001-9872-8152 WOS: 000327097000012 PubMed: 32214940 During the hunting season in March 2012, a total of 93 blood samples were collected from wild boars (Sus scrofa) shot in the area of northern Turkey (Samsun and Gumushane provinces). These blood samples were examined by enzyme immunoassay (ELISA) for the presence of antibodies to classical swine fever virus (CSFV), Aujeszky's disease virus (ADV), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV), swine influenza virus (SIV), porcine parvovirus (PPV), swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), hepatitis E virus (HEV), African swine fever virus (ASFV), porcine rotavirus (PRV), transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) and bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV). Out of 93 serum samples examined, 65 (69.9 %) were positive for PRV, 22 (23.7 %) were positive for ADV, 5 (5.4 %) were positive for BVDV, 4 (4.3 %) were positive for PPV and 2 (2.2 %) were positive for PRRSV. All sera were negative for ASFV, SVDV, HEV, SIV, PRCV, TGEV and CSFV. The results, recorded for the first time in Turkey, supported the hypothesis that wild boar act as a potential reservoir of selected viruses and thus have a role in the epidemiology of these diseases.

Swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) is a porcine pathogen and a member of the species Enterovirus B within the Picornaviridae family. Brefeldin A (BFA) is an inhibitor of guanine nucleotide exchange factors of Arf proteins that induces Golgi complex disassembly and alters the cellular secretory pathway. Since BFA has been shown to inhibit the RNA replication of different enteroviruses, including SVDV, we have analyzed the effect of BFA and of golgicide A (GCA), another Golgi disrupting drug, on SVDV multiplication. BFA and GCA similarly inhibited SVDV production. To investigate the molecular basis of the antiviral effect of BFA, SVDV mutants with increased resistance to BFA were isolated. A single amino acid substitution, Q65H, in the non-structural protein 2C was found to be responsible for increased resistance to BFA. These results provide new insight into the relationship of enteroviruses with the components of the secretory pathway and on the role of SVDV 2C protein in this process., BIO2011-24351and AGL2014-52395-C2-1-R(FS)from MINECO,AGL2014-56518- JIN(MAM-A)fromMINECO,and by RTA2013-C0013-E from INIA and partially financed by the European Regional Development’s funds(FEDER) andS2013/ABI-2906-PLATESA from CAM and partially financed by FEDER(FSandJ-CS). Work at Centrode Biología Molecular “SeveroOchoa” was also supported by Fundación Ramón Areces

Summary The use of swine oral fluid (OF) for the detection of nucleic acids and antibodies is gaining significant popularity. Assays have been developed for this purpose for endemic and foreign animal diseases of swine. Here, we report the use of OF for the detection of virus and antibodies in pigs experimentally infected with swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), a virus that causes a disease clinically indistinguishable from the economically devastating foot-and-mouth disease. Viral genome was detected in OF by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR) from 1 day post-infection (DPI) to 21 DPI. Virus isolation from OF was also successful at 1–5 DPI. An adapted competitive ELISA based on the monoclonal antibodies 5B7 detected antibodies to SVDV in OF starting at DPI 6. Additionally, using isotype-specific indirect ELISAs, SVDV-specific IgM and IgA were evaluated in OF. IgM response started at DPI 6, peaking at DPI 7 or 14 and declining sharply at DPI 21, while IgA response started at DPI 7, peaked at DPI 14 and remained high until the end of the experiment. These results confirm the potential use of OF for SVD surveillance using both established and partially validated assays in this study.

Senecavirus A (SVA) infection was recently confirmed in pigs in Brazil. In March, 2015, an outbreak of vesicular disease occurred in Guangdong, China, characterized by vesicular lesions in sows and acute death of neonatal piglets. Cumulative incidence of porcine idiopathic vesicular disease in farm A was 258, which had a total number of 5500 sows. Sows in farm B displayed typical vesicular symptoms by May, 2015, which also had 5500 sows. A total of 278 and 142 of 5500 sows in farm B demonstrated lame and presented vesicles, respectively, associated with a total of 186 mortality in piglets. Routine differential diagnoses for swine vesicular disease were carried out to exclude infection with foot-and-mouth disease virus, swine vesicular disease virus, vesicular exanthema of swine virus and vesicular stomatitis virus. In this study, seven pairs of primer were designed to amplify the complete genome of SVA in RT-PCR assays. Sequence alignment showed that this Chinese strain shares 94.4-97.1% sequence identity to other eight strains of SVA. This is the first report of SVA in China and provides information about the association between SVA infection and vesicular disease.

Swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) is a porcine pathogen and a member of the Enterovirus genus within the Picornaviridae family. The SVDV genome is composed of a single-stranded RNA molecule of positive polarity. Here, we report the first complete sequence of the coding region of a Spanish SVDV isolate (SPA/1/'93)., BIO2011-24351 and AGL2014-52395-C2-1-R (to F.S.), AGL-2014-56518-JIN (to M.A.M.-A.), RTA2013-C0013-E from INIA, and S2013/ABI-2906-PLATESA from CAM (to F.S. and J.-C.S.). Work at Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa was also supported by an institutional grant from Fundación Ramón Areces.

The aim of this study was to estimate in farmed European wild boars the prevalence of and risk factors associated with a range of common porcine viral and bacterial infections, namely, porcine parvovirus (PPV), porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), swine influenza virus (SIV), Aujeszky’s disease virus (ADV), classical swine fever virus (CSFV), swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), coronavirus causing transmissible gastroenteritis (TGEV), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, Lawsonia intracellularis, Brucella spp., and Leptospira spp. A sampling frame was compiled based on a national record of wild boar farmers, and 32 farms were surveyed. Serological screening was carried out on 303 samples from animals slaughtered between 2005 and 2008, and random-effect logistic regression models were developed for pathogens with a ‘non-zero’ prevalence. The apparent animal prevalence for PPV, PCV2, and L. intracellularis was 46.5% (95% confidence interval [CI] 41–52%), 51.1% (95% CI 45–57%) and 59.2% (95% CI 54–65%), respectively. Apparent farm seroprevalence rates for PPV, PCV2 and Lawsonia intracellularis were 56.3% (95% CI, 39–73%), 21.9% (95% CI, 8–36%) and 78.1% (95% CI, 64–92%), respectively. No antibodies were detected against SIV, ADV, CSFV, SVDV, TGEV, PRSSV, Leptospira spp., Brucella spp., or M. hyopneumoniae. Increasing herd size, proximity to dense populations of domestic swine and later sampling times within the survey period were found to be risk factors. Overall, the seroprevalence of these pathogens in farmed wild boar was similar to that in the farmed domestic pig population in Finland. However, it is possible that the rearing of wild boars in fenced estates may predispose them to particular infections, as reflected in higher antibody titres.

The genus Teschovirus, family Picornaviridae, currently includes 12 serotypes (PTV 1 to 12) isolated from swine. PTVs have been well studied in domestic pigs, but knowledge about PTVs in wild boars is deficient. Here, we report the first complete PTV genome sequence from 7 (70 %) of 10 fecal samples of wild boar piglets (Sus scrofa) by RT-PCR and pyrosequencing. Analysis of the wild boar PTV strain WB2C-TV/2011/HUN (JQ429405) showed considerable difference, especially in VP1 (66-74 % amino acid identity) compared to the available PTVs. PTV is present in wild boars, and WB2C-TV/2011/HUN represents a novel PTV genotype, provisionally named PTV-13.

Two lateral flow devices (LFD) for the detection of vesicular stomatitis (VS) virus (VSV), types Indiana (VSV-IND) and New Jersey (VSV-NJ) were developed using monoclonal antibodies C1 and F25VSVNJ-45 to the respective VSV serotypes. The performance of the LFDs was evaluated in the laboratory on suspensions of vesicular epithelia and cell culture passage derived supernatants of VSV. The collection of test samples included 105 positive for VSV-IND (92 vesicular epithelial suspensions and 13 cell culture antigens; encompassing 93 samples of subtype 1 [VSV-IND-1], 9 of subtype 2 [VSV-IND-2] and 3 of subtype 3 [VSV-IND-3]) and 189 positive for VSV-NJ (162 vesicular epithelial suspensions and 27 cell culture antigens) from suspected cases of vesicular disease in cattle and horses collected from 11 countries between 1937 and 2008 or else were derived from experimental infection and 777 samples that were either shown to be positive or negative for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus (FMDV) and swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) or else collected from healthy cattle or pigs and collected from 68 countries between 1965 and 2011. The diagnostic sensitivity of the VSV-IND (for reaction with VSV-IND-1) and VSV-NJ LFDs was either similar or identical at 94.6% (VSV-IND) and 97.4% (VSV-NJ) compared to 92.5% and 97.4% obtained by the reference method of antigen ELISA. The VSV-IND LFD failed to react with viruses of VSV-IND-2 and 3, while the VSV-NJ device recognized all VSV-NJ virus strains. The diagnostic specificities of the VSV-IND and VSV-NJ LFDs were 99.1% and 100, respectively, compared to 99.6% and 99.8% for the ELISA. Reactions with FMDV which can produce indistinguishable syndromes clinically in cattle, pigs and sheep and SVDV (vesicular disease in pigs) did not occur. These data illustrate the potential for the LFDs to be used next to the animal for providing rapid and objective support to veterinarians in their clinical judgment of vesicular disease and for the subtype (VSV-IND-1) and type-specific (VSV-NJ) pen-side diagnosis of VS and differential diagnosis from FMD.