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The split‐attention effect posits that learning outcomes are negatively impacted when interrelated text and graphics are spatially segregated rather than cohesively integrated. This study explored how the instructional material's presentation size influences the manifestation of the split‐attention effect. Based on cognitive load theory and perceptual load theory, we hypothesized that elevated information density in a compact presentation format would attenuate the advantage of integrated text and graphics, thereby diminishing the salience of the split‐attention effect relative to a more expansive presentation size. University students (n = 146) studied a split‐attention format or integrated format in either large or small presentation size. Results on retention and comprehension tests and extraneous cognitive load ratings revealed no effects of instructional format, presentation size or their interaction. The present results call for a more nuanced understanding of the split‐attention effect and suggest additional research to explore its cognitive foundations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Self‐management of cognitive load is a recent development in cognitive load theory. Finger pointing has been shown to be a potential self‐management strategy to support learning from spatially separated, but mutually referring text and pictures (i.e., split‐attention examples). Aims: The present study aimed to extend the prior research on the pointing strategy and investigated the effects of finger pointing on learning from online split‐attention examples. Moreover, we examined an alternative pointing strategy using the computer mouse, and a combination of finger pointing and computer‐mouse pointing. Sample: One‐hundred and forty‐five university students participated in the present study. Method: All participants studied an online split‐attention example about the human nervous system and were randomly allocated to one of four conditions: (1) pointing with the index finger, (2) pointing with the computer mouse, (3) pointing with the index finger and the computer mouse and (4) no pointing. Results: Results confirmed our main hypothesis, indicating that finger pointing led to higher retention performance than no pointing. However, the mouse pointing strategy and the combined finger and mouse pointing strategy did not show supportive effects. Conclusions: Finger pointing can be used as a simple and convenient self‐management strategy in online learning environments. Mouse pointing may not be as effective as finger pointing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated whether finger pointing is an effective cognitive-load self-management strategy to mitigate the split-attention effect during learning. This effect holds that learning from split-attention examples consisting of spatially separated, but mutually referring text and picture, is less effective than learning from equivalent spatially integrated sources. One-hundred-and-twenty-nine undergraduates studied a picture with accompanying text about the nephron in a between-subjects design with the factors strategy use (pointing vs. no pointing) and instructional format (split-attention vs. integrated). The split-attention effect was confirmed by results on a comprehension test and a combined measure of learning effort and test performance (i.e. instructional efficiency). However, evidence for the benefits of pointing was only found for retention performance (i.e. not for comprehension performance and cognitive load ratings) for participants who learned from the split-attention example (i.e. not for participants who learned from the integrated example). Replications are invited to examine pointing as a self-management strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This current study examined the effects of full captions (n = 37), keyword captions (n = 38), and no captions (n = 37) on students' ability to gain pictorial knowledge from a 5 minutes and 52 seconds French language video. After completing a pre-vocabulary recognition test to determine the level of equality between groups, students watched the video and immediately completed a post-visual recognition test and a post-recall protocol test to determine students' visual content gain and/or recall. Overall, the keyword captions group responded to visual questions about the video just as well as the no captions group, and somewhat better than the full captions group. In addition, the no captions group significantly outperformed the keyword and full captions groups on visual recall. Based on eye-tracking data, the more one looked within the captions field, the less one gained visually from the video. These results have implications for how one designs L2 video lessons with captions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated whether finger pointing can be used as a cognitive load self‐management strategy when learning from split‐attention examples. We expected that pointing would reduce cognitive load and enhance learning performance. In a guided self‐management phase, 122 university students studied a split‐attention example under three pointing conditions (i.e., no pointing, one‐handed pointing, two‐handed pointing) or an integrated example without pointing. In the subsequent unguided self‐management phase, all students studied a new split‐attention example without pointing instructions. Results on retention and comprehension tests and self‐ratings of cognitive load after studying each split‐attention example revealed no differences between conditions. An exploratory analysis of pointing movements in the unguided self‐management phase revealed that participants who frequently pointed outperformed those who barely pointed on the comprehension test in this phase. Our findings provide some suggestive evidence for the effectiveness of pointing as a self‐management strategy in the learning from split‐attention examples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multimedia learning theories suggest presenting associated pieces of information in spatial and temporal contiguity. New technologies like Augmented Reality allow for realizing these principles in science laboratory courses by presenting virtual real-time information during hands-on experimentation. Spatial integration can be achieved by pinning virtual representations of measurement data to corresponding real components. In the present study, an Augmented Reality-based presentation format was realized via a head-mounted display and contrasted to a separate display, which provided a well-arranged data matrix in spatial distance to the real components and was therefore expected to result in a spatial split-attention effect. Two groups of engineering students (N = 107; Augmented Reality vs. separate display) performed six experiments exploring fundamental laws of electric circuits. Cognitive load and conceptual knowledge acquisition were assessed as main outcome variables. In contrast to our hypotheses and previous findings, the Augmented Reality group did not report lower extraneous load and the separate display group showed higher learning gains. The pre- and posttest assessing conceptual knowledge were monitored by eye tracking. Results indicate that the condition affected the visual relevancy of circuit diagrams to final problem completion. The unexpected reverse effects could be traced back to emphasizing coherence formation processes regarding multiple measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multimedia learning theories suggest presenting associated pieces of information in spatial and temporal contiguity. New technologies like Augmented Reality allow for realizing these principles in science laboratory courses by presenting virtual real-time information during hands-on experimentation. Spatial integration can be achieved by pinning virtual representations of measurement data to corresponding real components. In the present study, an Augmented Reality-based presentation format was realized via a head-mounted display and contrasted to a separate display, which provided a well-arranged data matrix in spatial distance to the real components and was therefore expected to result in a spatial split-attention effect. Two groups of engineering students (N = 107; Augmented Reality vs. separate display) performed six experiments exploring fundamental laws of electric circuits. Cognitive load and conceptual knowledge acquisition were assessed as main outcome variables. In contrast to our hypotheses and previous findings, the Augmented Reality group did not report lower extraneous load and the separate display group showed higher learning gains. The pre- and posttest assessing conceptual knowledge were monitored by eye tracking. Results indicate that the condition affected the visual relevancy of circuit diagrams to final problem completion. The unexpected reverse effects could be traced back to emphasizing coherence formation processes regarding multiple measurements.

Cognitive load theory is considered universally applicable to all kinds of learning scenarios. However, instead of a universal method for measuring cognitive load that suits different learning contexts or target groups, there is a great variety of assessment approaches. Particularly common are subjective rating scales, which even allow for measuring the three assumed types of cognitive load in a differentiated way. Although these scales have been proven to be effective for various learning tasks, they might not be an optimal fit for the learning demands of specific complex environments such as technology-enhanced STEM laboratory courses. The aim of this research was therefore to examine and compare the existing rating scales in terms of validity for this learning context and to identify options for adaptation, if necessary. For the present study, the two most common subjective rating scales that are known to differentiate between load types (the cognitive load scale by Leppink et al. and the naïve rating scale by Klepsch et al.) were slightly adapted to the context of learning through structured hands-on experimentation where elements such as measurement data, experimental setups, and experimental tasks affect knowledge acquisition. N = 95 engineering students performed six experiments examining basic electric circuits where they had to explore fundamental relationships between physical quantities based on the observed data. Immediately after the experimentation, the students answered both adapted scales. Various indicators of validity, which considered the scales’ internal structure and their relation to variables such as group allocation as participants were randomly assigned to two conditions with a contrasting spatial arrangement of the measurement data, were analyzed. For the given dataset, the intended three-factorial structure could not be confirmed, and most of the a priori-defined subscales showed insufficient internal consistency. A multitrait–multimethod analysis suggests convergent and discriminant evidence between the scales which could not be confirmed sufficiently. The two contrasted experimental conditions were expected to result in different ratings for the extraneous load, which was solely detected by one adapted scale. As a further step, two new scales were assembled based on the overall item pool and the given dataset. They revealed a three-factorial structure in accordance with the three types of load and seemed to be promising new tools, although their subscales for extraneous load still suffer from low reliability scores.

Face-to-face and computer-mediated collaboration have been used extensively in educational practice. However, research on teaching writing skills for English as a foreign language under collaborative conditions has reported mixed or even negative findings. Cognitive load theory can be used to explain many of these contradictory findings. An experiment (n = 60) was conducted to compare the effectiveness of face-to-face and computer-mediated collaborative conditions in fostering learners' acquisition of writing skills. The results indicated that the face-to-face instructional condition benefitted learners' development of writing skills more than the computer-mediated communication condition. Evolutionary educational psychology with its distinction between evolutionary primary and secondary skills was used to explain these results. It was suggested that since we have evolved to collaborate in face-to-face contexts, the associated primary skills could be used to leverage the acquisition of the secondary skills required during foreign language writing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The split-attention effect refers to learning with related representations in multimedia. Spatial proximity and integration of these representations are crucial for learning processes. The influence of varying amounts of proximity between related and unrelated information has not yet been specified. In two experiments (N1 = 98; N2 = 85), spatial proximity between a pictorial presentation and text labels was manipulated (high vs. medium vs. low). Additionally, in Experiment 1, a control group with separated picture and text presentation was implemented. The results revealed a significant effect of spatial proximity on learning performance. In contrast to previous studies, the medium condition leads to the highest transfer, and in Experiment 2, the highest retention score. These results are interpreted considering cognitive load and instructional efficiency. Findings indicate that transfer efficiency is optimal at a medium distance between representations in Experiment 1. Implications regarding the spatial contiguity principle and the spatial contiguity failure are discussed.

The split-attention effect entails that learning from spatially separated, but mutually referring information sources (e.g., text and picture), is less effective than learning from the equivalent spatially integrated sources. According to cognitive load theory, impaired learning is caused by the working memory load imposed by the need to distribute attention between the information sources and mentally integrate them. In this study, we directly tested whether the split-attention effect is caused by spatial separation per se. Spatial distance was varied in basic cognitive tasks involving pictures (Experiment 1) and text–picture combinations (Experiment 2; preregistered study), and in more ecologically valid learning materials (Experiment 3). Experiment 1 showed that having to integrate two pictorial stimuli at greater distances diminished performance on a secondary visual working memory task, but did not lead to slower integration. When participants had to integrate a picture and written text in Experiment 2, a greater distance led to slower integration of the stimuli, but not to diminished performance on the secondary task. Experiment 3 showed that presenting spatially separated (compared with integrated) textual and pictorial information yielded fewer integrative eye movements, but this was not further exacerbated when increasing spatial distance even further. This effect on learning processes did not lead to differences in learning outcomes between conditions. In conclusion, we provide evidence that larger distances between spatially separated information sources influence learning processes, but that spatial separation on its own is not likely to be the only, nor a sufficient, condition for impacting learning outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning from mutually referring but spatially separated text and picture (i.e., split-attention materials) is cognitively demanding. We investigated whether mouse pointing could support learning from split-attention materials in which the related elements between the text and picture were indicated by visual labels or not. One hundred thirty-two university students studied a text and picture about the human nervous system in one cell of a 2 (Mouse Pointing: yes vs. no) × 2 (Labeling: yes vs. no) between-subjects design. Results indicated neither mouse pointing nor labeling had a significant impact on retention, comprehension, and cognitive load ratings. However, there was an interaction between mouse pointing and labeling on comprehension scores, indicating that mouse pointing on labeled materials resulted in worse performance than mouse pointing on unlabeled materials. Eye tracking results revealed that both mouse pointing and labeling led to shorter fixation durations and less fixations on the text and more transitions between text and picture. Labeling also led to longer fixation durations and more fixations on the picture. These findings suggest that mouse pointing and labeling influenced perceptual but not cognitive processing. • Effects of mouse pointing on learning from split-attention examples were studied. • Split-attention examples did or did not contain labels linking text and picture. • Mouse pointing and labeling together led to lower comprehension. • Mouse pointing and labeling led to more transitions between text and picture. • Mouse pointing and labeling influenced perceptual but not cognitive processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In multimedia learning settings, limitations in learners' mental resource capacities need to be considered to avoid impairing effects on learning performance. Based on the prominent and often quoted Cognitive Load Theory, this study investigates the potential of a single experimental approach to provide simultaneous and separate measures for the postulated load-inducing factors. Applying a basal letter-learning task related to the process of working memory updating, intrinsic cognitive load (by varying task complexity), extraneous cognitive load (via inducing split-attention demands) and germane cognitive load (by varying the presence of schemata) were manipulated within a 3 × 2 × 2-factorial full repeated-measures design. The performance of a student sample ( N = 96) was inspected regarding reaction times and errors in updating and recall steps. Approaching the results with linear mixed models, the effect of complexity gained substantial strength, whereas the other factors received at least partial significant support. Additionally, interactions between two or all load-inducing factors occurred. Despite various open questions, the study comprises a promising step for the empirical investigation of existing construction yards in cognitive load research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, gloss presentation format or the location where a gloss appears with respect to its related target word has received renewed attention. Research suggested that different gloss presentation formats could have differential effects on reading comprehension and/or vocabulary learning. This study hypothesized that the effectiveness of different computerized gloss presentation formats in reading comprehension could be explained by drawing on the split-attention effect within the framework of cognitive load theory. The effect predicts that when two related sources of information are physically separated (e.g., a target word and the respective gloss), cognitive resources are unnecessarily wasted, and learning is hindered. To test this hypothesis, 39 Persian-speaking L2 learners of English were divided into two experimental conditions, each being exposed to a text enhanced with either in-text or marginal glosses. Two measures of reading comprehension and three measures of cognitive load were employed. The participants' initial differences in terms of grammatical knowledge and vocabulary size were balanced out, and their lookup behavior was also tracked. The results revealed that the participants with access to in-text glosses, compared with those with marginal glosses, experienced lower levels of cognitive load due to the elimination of split-attention and, accordingly, performed better on the reading comprehension measures. Given the participants' L2 proficiency level, the findings suggested that a text enhanced with in-text glosses tends to be instructionally more efficient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we developed a presentation software program (CodEx) for web programming language courses. It has functions to display sample source code, edit it, and display its execution result all in one slide. To evaluate the efficiency of this software (CodEx), two experiments were conducted. First, reviews done by nine teachers proved its efficiency in teaching programming language. Secondly, to evaluate the effectiveness of CodEx, we conducted a micro teaching experiment which compared our proposed teaching method (CodEx) with the conventional method, based on tests and a questionnaire. The tests included fill-in-the-blank questions, and tests of reading and writing programming codes. In the reading test, students taught with CodEx obtained higher scores than those taught by the conventional method. Our findings suggest that this software is better at helping students to understand the mechanism of programming codes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A learning environment having more than one screen enables users to display and compare various sources of learning information with two adjacent screens illustrating the development of interrelated concepts and showing their relationships. This proposed technique could provide higher quality resources for learners by addressing physical and psychological factors. However, attention is a limited mental resource meaning that humans cannot always focus on simultaneous presentations of information. Cognitive load in humans may become profoundly heavy while processing rich information from multiple sources simultaneously. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the split-attention effect, worked examples effect, and learning achievement of using single- and dual-screen learning environments in a programming language course. Results of this study showed significant differences of two learning effects and learning achievement of learners between two learning environments. To conclude, this study may provide evidence toward explaining the influences of split attention of learners and their learning with worked examples and the effects of learning in a dual-screen environment, as well as in providing users with another suggestion for using two adjacent screens in teaching and learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Learning requires applying limited working memory and attentional resources to intrinsic, germane, and extraneous aspects of the learning task. To reduce the especially undesirable extraneous load aspects of learning environments, cognitive load theorists suggest that spatially integrated learning materials should be used instead of spatially separated materials, thereby reducing the split-attention effect (Sweller & Chandler, 1994). Recent work, however, has suggested a new distinction between two common formats of spatially separated displays: spatially distributed versus spatially stacked (Jang & Schunn, 2010). Moreover, a distinction between instructions and learning task materials has rarely been made. Across two studies with 106 college students (56 in Study 1 and 50 in Study 2), we compared spatially distributed (multiple sources of information are placed side by side) versus spatially stacked (only one at the top is visible) instructions, without changing the learning task materials, on both task performance and learning. With materials more typical of practice, Study 1 showed that the distributed-display instructions led learners to more efficient learning; learners finished the task faster and scored higher in the overall learning test. With materials more tightly controlled for spatial format per se, Study 2 replicated the effect and found that the benefit of the distributed instructions appeared to be associated with changes in cognitive load. Implications for educational practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The study investigated the extent to which two types of instructional materials and learner field dependence–independence affected learners’ cognitive load, time spent on task, and problem-solving performance in a complex system with a computer-modeling tool. One hundred and one primary student teachers were initially categorized into field dependent, field mixed, and field-independent learners based on their performance on the Hidden Figures Test, and were then randomly assigned to two experimental conditions. One group received a static diagram and a textual description in a split format, and the second group received the same static diagram and textual description in an integrated format. MANOVA revealed that the split-format materials contributed to higher cognitive load, higher time spent on task, and lower problem-solving performance than the integrated-format materials. There was also an interaction effect, only in terms of students’ problem-solving performance, between field dependence–independence and instructional materials, indicating that the facilitating effect of the integrated-format materials was restricted to the field-independent learners. Conclusions are drawn in terms of how the well-documented split-attention effect manifests itself irrespective of students’ field dependence-independence. Implications of the effects of reduced extraneous cognitive load on students’ problem-solving performance are also discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The phenomenon that the physical integration of verbal and pictorial information sources, compared to their physical separation, enhances learning is known as the split-attention effect. This paper investigates how the split-attention effect can be best explained against the background of cognitive load theory. In an experimental study, students learned about physiological processes with either an integrated or a split-source format. Secondary task performance was used to measure overall cognitive load, whereas subjective ratings were used to measure intrinsic, extraneous and germane load individually. Learners with split-source format achieved lower learning outcomes, but did not show worse secondary task performance than learners with integrated format. These results contradict the assumption that only an increase in extraneous load for learners with a split-source format mediates the split-attention effect. Mediation analyses of the subjective load ratings revealed that both, extraneous and germane load contributed to the split-attention effect. These results support the assumption that germane load also plays a crucial role in mediating the split-attention effect. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Learning from spatially separated text and pictures is improved when learners are instructed to use a physical or mental integration strategy. This study investigated whether varying the spatial distance between text and pictures affects the effectiveness of physical and mental integration strategies. We hypothesized that a larger spatial distance would increase cognitive load and harm learning. Ninety-two university students studied the functioning of an electrical circuit from text and pictures that were presented at a small or large spatial distance from each other, while using a physical or mental integration strategy during learning. Results indicated that participants using the mental integration strategy obtained higher recall scores than participants using the physical integration strategy, but no differences were found for comprehension, transfer, and cognitive load. No effects of spatial distance were found. More research is needed to investigate to what extent spatial distance influences learning with mental and physical integration strategies. • Mental and physical integration strategies support learning from text and picture. • We studied whether benefits remain with a larger distance between text and picture. • The mental integration strategy outperformed the physical strategy on recall. • No main or interacting effects of spatial distance were found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies emphasize a positive impact of learning with augmented reality (AR) systems in various instructional scenarios. Especially combining real and virtual learning components according to spatial and temporal contiguity principles is claimed to foster learning and to reduce extraneous cognitive processing. We applied these principles to a physics laboratory experiment examining heat conduction where students measure the temperature along heated metal rods via a thermal imaging camera. However, the traditional setup leads to a time delay between measuring and receiving data, and spatially separates relevant visualizations causing resource-consuming search processes. Using see-through smartglasses, traditional displays were transformed into virtual representations which were anchored to corresponding objects of the experimental setup, resulting in an integrated AR view of real-time data. Both traditional and AR-assisted workflows of data collection were investigated in a field study with undergraduate students (N = 74) during a graded laboratory course. Performance and cognitive load were assessed as dependent variables. Although the AR condition did not show a learning gain in a conceptual knowledge test, they nonetheless reported a significant lower extraneous cognitive load than the traditional condition. These results contrast with recent findings on AR and integrated formats but reveal a significant impact on cognitive load research. • Development and investigation of AR-based physics laboratory scenario. • Application of spatial and temporal contiguity to avoid split-attention. • Adaptation of self-reported cognitive load scale for laboratory course instructions. • Significant reduction of extraneous load for AR-based workflow. • No significant group-dependent learning gains for conceptual knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The split-attention effect seems a robust finding in the literature and shows that complex learning materials consisting of text and pictures lead to better learning when they are spatially integrated instead of spatially separated. In the current study, two experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of distance and signaling on the split-attention effect. In Experiment 1, a 2 × 2 design was used in which spatial distance (large vs. small) and signaling (signaling vs. no signaling) were manipulated, while in Experiment 2 it was tried to replicate the split-attention effect previously observed with the learning materials used in Experiment 1. In contrast to our hypotheses, spatial distance and signaling did not influence mental effort ratings and transfer performance in Experiment 1. Moreover, no split-attention effect was found on retention, transfer or mental effort ratings in Experiment 2. As no split-attention effect was obtained with the learning materials, it is not possible to examine the effects of distance and signaling on the split-attention effect. Concluding, the current results raise doubts about how robust the split-attention effect is, and demonstrate the importance of replication studies. • Two experiments examined learning from spatially separated text and pictures. • In Experiment 1 increased distance and signaling did not influence learning. • Experiment 2 found no benefits of spatially integrating text and picture. • Apparently spatial separation does not always impede text-picture learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Self-managed physical integration of text and pictures supports learning. • We studied if this also applies to a mental learning strategy. • The mental learning strategy supported learning from a split-attention format. • The mental strategy also led to better learning than a physical strategy. Learners learn more from spatially separated text and pictures after they have been instructed to physically integrate these sources than without such an instruction. We investigated whether instructing learners to mentally integrate textual and pictorial information would yield similar results. Eighty-seven participants studied a picture with accompanying text about an electrical circuit. Text and picture were presented as spatially separated sources or in an integrated format. In the separated format, participants were instructed to use (1) a mental learning strategy, (2) a physical learning strategy, or (3) no learning strategy. Participants in the separated condition using a mental learning strategy and the integrated condition obtained higher recall and comprehension (but not causal inference) performance than participants in the separate conditions with the physical- or no learning strategy. This indicates that instructing learners to mentally integrate spatially separated text and pictures when studying split-attention material can be an effective learning strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]