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Near-Earth space is becoming increasingly congested; the number of satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO), where there is already the greatest spatial density of objects (including man-made debris), is increasing rapidly. Knowing the status of non-cooperative space objects is one of the requirements of space situational awareness (SSA). Assessing the dynamic properties of large inactive satellites and rocket bodies, such as their rotation period and the spatial location of the rotation axis, is necessary to predict their orientation. This information is critical to both the success of active debris removal (ADR) missions and improved orbital propagation of objects in LEO. Monitoring the state of RSO is carried out by various means, including using ground-based optical sensors by collecting photometric data, processing it and analyzing light curves. This paper presents a new method for estimating the orientation of the RSO rotation axis in space. This method relies on structural analysis of RSO light curves and the search for similar fragments, called "photometric patterns," in observations obtained from one or several sites simultaneously or over a short period of time. The method does not require knowledge of the RSO shape and does not impose strict requirements on the quality of photometric observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Problems of space debris, space security threats and space accidents are an escalating topic that is drawing attention from scientists and researchers worldwide. Based on the practical demand for detecting and surveilling objects in Earth's orbit in the Vietnam's sky area, the research group has designed a space monitoring system to detect and identify orbiting objects using optical telescopes. The idea of this system is to utilize wide and narrow field-of-view (FOV) optical telescope systems to observe and identify the trajectory of orbiting objects. After an image of an unknown object is captured with a wide FOV telescope, an analyzing algorithm will process and predict the trajectory of it, with support of artificial intelligence, and determine whether there is the appearance of an uncataloged object. If it is affirmative, the narrow telescope system will adapt to a new attitude to track the object from predicted trajectory and gather information for future use. Constructing and validating of this monitoring system deployed by the research group are described in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing proliferation of space debris, intermittent space incidents, and the rapid emergence of massive LEO satellite constellations pose significant threats to satellites in orbit. Ground-based optical observations play a crucial role in space surveillance and space situational awareness (SSA). The Zhulong telescopic observation network stands as a pivotal resource in the realm of space object tracking and prediction. This publicly available network plays a critical role in furnishing essential data for accurately delineating and forecasting the orbit of space objects in Earth orbit. Comprising a sophisticated array of hardware components including precise telescopes, optical sensors, and image sensors, the Zhulong network synergistically collaborates to achieve unparalleled levels of precision in tracking and observing space objects. Central to the network's efficacy is its ability to extract positional information, referred to as angular data, from consecutive images. These angular data serve as the cornerstone for precise orbit determination and prediction. In this study, the CPF (Consolidated Prediction Format) orbit serves as the reference standard against which the accuracy of the angular data is evaluated. The findings reveal that the angular data error of the Zhulong network remains consistently below 3 arcseconds, attesting to its remarkable precision. Moreover, through the accumulation of angular data over time, coupled with the utilization of numerical integration and least squares methods, the Zhulong network facilitates highly accurate orbit determination and prediction for space objects. These methodologies leverage the wealth of data collected by the network to extrapolate trajectories with unprecedented accuracy, offering invaluable insights into the behavior and movement of celestial bodies. The results presented herein underscore the immense potential of electric optic telescopes in the realm of space surveillance. By harnessing the capabilities of the Zhulong network, researchers and astronomers can gain deeper insights into the dynamics of space objects, thereby advancing our understanding of the cosmos. Ultimately, the Zhulong telescopic observation network emerges as a pioneering tool in the quest to unravel the mysteries of the universe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presented method allows one to calculate the of maneuvers performed on several turns using a low-thrust engine. These maneuvers ensure the flight of an active spacecraft within a given area of the target space object. The flight is carried out in the vicinity of a circular orbit. Simplified mathematical models of motion are used to solve this problem. The influence of the non-centrality of the gravitational field and atmosphere is not taken into account in the calculations. The process of determining the parameters of the maneuvers is divided into several stages: in the first and third stages, the parameters of the impulse transfer and the transfer carried out by the low-thrust engine are calculated using analytical methods. In the second stage, the distribution of maneuvering between turns, ensuring a successful solution to the meeting problem, is determined by changing one variable. This method is characterized by its simplicity and high reliability in determining the parameters of maneuvers, which makes it applicable on board a spacecraft. As part of the study, an analysis of the dependence of the total characteristic velocity of solving the meeting problem on the amount of engine thrust was also carried out. The maneuver parameters can be refined using an iterative procedure to take into account the main disturbances.

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In this study, hypervelocity impact (HVI) simulations between a space object and space structure using various shielding systems are conducted. A nonlinear structural dynamics analysis code, LS-DYNA, is used. The space object at 6.910 km/s is modeled as an Al2017-T4 sphere with a diameter of 2 mm. The four types of space sandwich structures with the same mass of 0.0121 kg are considered to investigate the shielding performances and are modeled as honeycomb core sandwich panel (HCSP), lattice core sandwich panel (LCSP), LC/HCSP, and HC/LCSP. The shielding performances and final failure shapes of the space structures are studied through the HVI simulations on the space structure using various shielding systems. The HCSP fails to protect due to the channeling effect, resulting in failure to the rear wall. The three types of the shielding systems using the LC successfully protect the space structure from the HVI with the space object as the debris cloud is distributed by the multishock effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the study of the legal aspects of the implementation of the norms of space law in Ukraine regarding the implementation of the national registration of space objects. It was established that the registration-legal connection between a space object and the state is a legal element that determines the presence or absence of a stipulated right of state jurisdiction over a space object in outer space. It is proven that the implementation of the exclusive jurisdiction of the state depends on the existence of a clear mechanism for the national registration of space objects and the effective functioning of their state register. Based on the analysis of the norms of international space law, it was determined that the «state of registration» of a space object is its «launch state», which maintains a register of space objects. It is emphasized that the «launch state» should introduce a national procedure for registering space objects, which involves the creation of a state register. The legal significance of their registration lies in the fact that entering a space object into the register is a legally significant action that enables the application of the norms of national legislation. It is the "launch state" tha thas received and implemented the right to register the space object, will have the legal status of the "r egistration state" and will implement quasiterritorial jurisdiction over the object during its stay in out er space. It is argued that the legislative norm on the mandatory state registration of spacecraft in the State Register of Spacecraft of Ukraine does not currently create legal consequences for the subjects of the relevant legal relationship, since the Rules for the Registration of Spacecraft in Ukraine have not been approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine yet. Legal uncertainty regarding the rules of their registration creates a potentially dangerous jurisdictional vacuum during the stay of spacecraft in outer space, which can lead to the emer gence of negative legal situations. The primary step of the state in solving this problem should be the establishment of a clear and effective procedure for the national registration of space objects. This will contribute to ensuring legal stability and compliance of Ukrainian space legislation with the norms and principles of international space law, as well as guaranteeing the preservation of Ukraine's jurisdiction over objects launched into outer space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The history of space debris research problem development is presented. The analysis of current state of space debris in near-Earth space is carried out, prerequisites for further growth space debris in near-Earth space are shown. Concrete examples of solving problems of space debris mitigation and protecting spacecraft are demonstrated. For one of the most clogged areas of geostationary orbit, in which there are no natural factors of objects leaving, formed scientific and technical groundwork for implementation of space debris active removal of objects project with using a service spacecraft with an ion beam injection system is considered. The role and contribution of development participants in creation of scientific and technical groundwork are indicated. The advantages of proposed method of remote impact on space objects and technical aspects of the project implementation are shown. It is proposed to use organizational form of promising projects to reduce anthropogenic impact on near-Earth space in the form of a Consortium consisting of scientific, educational and industrial partners. Within framework of this form of interaction, solution of a set of tasks is provided both for creation of new promising rocket and space technology and for the education of personnel for rocket and space industry.

In-Space Manufacturing (ISM) is a form of space activity that assumes the possibility of manufacturing, processing, and assembling products that use one or both of the following key elements: a) extraterrestrial raw materials as the basis for their production in part or in whole: b) natural phenomena and conditions occurring in extraterrestrial environments, such as microgravity, extreme temperatures or higher vacuum levels. This does not preclude the use of ISM terminology for production that does not use either raw materials or extraterrestrial conditions, but is production that occurs on board or with the use of a space object. For this reason, space production will come into contact with activities such as space mining or the use of space resources in-situ (ISRU), On-Orbit Servicing (OOS), or active disposal of space debris (Active Debris Removal, ADR), and over time will be intertwined with other activities in space. The subject matter of this paper is the term „space product”. This term is most often used, apart from legal terminology, for products based on research carried out in space, adapted for their possible introduction into economic circulation (such as fiber optics, cultured organs, metal alloys, ready-made parts and construction elements for satellites and surface stations). Legal considerations regarding the space product focus on two basic issues – first, the applicability of patent protection on board the facilities where production would take place; secondly, the legal status of a space product that would be located outside the manufacturing or assembly facility. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to seek an answer to the question – to what extent do the products of space production coincide with the space products proposed in the literature? What are the consequences of treating them as separate institutions in space law like patent law? What is a possible solution to such a problem?

The authors describe an algorithm that allows calculating the parameters of maneuvers performed on several turns by the low-thrust engine, which ensure the flight of the active spacecraft to the specified vicinity of the target space object. The movement takes place in the vicinity of a circular orbit. Linearized equations of motion are used in solving the problem. The influence of the non-centrality of the gravitational field and the atmosphere is not taken into account. The determination of maneuver parameters takes place in three stages. At the first and third stages, the parameters of the pulse transition and the transition performed by the low-thrust engine, are determined analytically. At the second stage, the distribution of maneuvering between turns, which provides a solution to the meeting problem, is carried out by iterating over one variable. This method of solving the problem provides simplicity and high reliability of determining the parameters of maneuvers, which allows it to be used on board the spacecraft. The paper investigates the dependence of the total characteristic speed of solving the meeting problem on the number of turns of the flight and the magnitude of the engine thrust.

In the case of a boom in space resource development, space debris will increase dramatically and cause serious problems for the spacecraft in orbit. To address this problem, a novel context sensing-YOLOv5 (CS-YOLOv5) is proposed for small and weak space object detection, which could realize the extraction of local context information and the enhancement and fusion of spatial information. To enhance the expression ability of feature information and the identification ability of the network, we propose the cross-layer context fusion module (CCFM) through multiple branches in parallel to learn the context information of different scales. At the same time, to map the small-scale features sequentially to the features of the previous layer, we design the adaptive weighting module (AWM) to assist the CCFM in further enhancing the expression of features. Additionally, to solve the problem that the spatial information of small objects is easily lost, we designed the spatial information enhancement module (SIEM) to adaptively learn the weak spatial information of small objects that need to be protected. To further enhance the generalization ability of CS-YOLOv5, we propose a contrast mosaic data augmentation to enrich the diversity of the sample. Extensive experiments are conducted on self-built datasets, which strongly prove the effectiveness of our method in space object detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the initial orbit determination of uncharted space objects, the operation method for obtaining three or more streak images was proposed and a design parameter analysis of a narrow field of view optical observation system was performed for this purpose. The proposed operational concept consists of repetitive forms of point tracking, streak center point prediction, mount gimbal maneuver, and streak image acquisition for unknown space objects. The central point prediction was performed using Kalman Filter based on a constant acceleration model and analysis was performed in terms of telescope mount gimbal maneuver and stabilization performance by fixing the exposure time for streak shooting. As a result of the simulation for the entire optical observation system, the ratio of the error value defined from the telescope center point to the streak center point is within 2% with respect to FOV. Consecutive streak images can be reliably obtained using the proposed system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the analysis of the legal mechanisms of managing the orbital interactions of spacecraft that are pivotal for the development of space (orbital) systems. Scientific-theoretical research methods: abstraction, idealization, construction of hypotheses and models, documentary analysis and synthesis, objective truth, cognitive-analytical, etc. Results: the origin and contemporary genesis of constituent elements of the legal mechanisms of the management of orbital interactions of spacecraft and the problems of adapting these mechanisms to the trends of the “new space,” are analyzed. The scientific aim is to contribute to the development of an adequate and integrated legal regime of the management of space systems and to improve the effectiveness of its institutional framework. Discussion: the evolution of the legal framework of international orbital interactions is analyzed on the background of the contemporary international space activities. The management of space systems needs comprehensive legal regulation and its harmonization with the respective regime of the leading space-faring nations. The inconsistency of international law with the practice of on-orbit interactions of spacecraft under the jurisdiction of different states, creates a risk of international conflict. The article formulates recommendations for improving the legal regime of orbital interactions arising from servicing spacecraft and de-orbiting them, in particular the licensing of such activities, their supervision, and the formation of institutional mechanisms for space systems management.

In-Space Manufacturing (ISM) is a form of space activity that assumes the possibility of manufacturing, processing, and assembling products that use one or both of the following key elements: a) extraterrestrial raw materials as the basis for their production in part or in whole: b) natural phenomena and conditions occurring in extraterrestrial environments, such as microgravity, extreme temperatures or higher vacuum levels. This does not preclude the use of ISM terminology for production that does not use either raw materials or extraterrestrial conditions, but is production that occurs on board or with the use of a space object. For this reason, space production will come into contact with activities such as space mining or the use of space resources in-situ (ISRU), On-Orbit Servicing (OOS), or active disposal of space debris (Active Debris Removal, ADR), and over time will be intertwined with other activities in space. The subject matter of this paper is the term „space product". This term is most often used, apart from legal terminology, for products based on research carried out in space, adapted for their possible introduction into economic circulation (such as fiber optics, cultured organs, metal alloys, ready-made parts and construction elements for satellites and surface stations). Legal considerations regarding the space product focus on two basic issues - first, the applicability of patent protection on board the facilities where production would take place; secondly, the legal status of a space product that would be located outside the manufacturing or assembly facility. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to seek an answer to the question - to what extent do the products of space production coincide with the space products proposed in the literature? What are the consequences of treating them as separate institutions in space law like patent law? What is a possible solution to such a problem? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional image processing techniques provide sustainable efficiency in the astrometry of deep space objects and in applied problems of determining the parameters of artificial satellite orbits. But the speed of the computing architecture and the functions of small optical systems are rapidly developing thus contribute to the use of a dynamic video stream for detecting and initializing space objects. The purpose of this paper is to automate the processing of optical measurement data during detecting space objects and numerical methods for the initial orbit determination.This article provided the implementation of a low-cost autonomous optical system for detecting of space objects with remote control elements. The basic algorithm model had developed and tested within the framework of remote control of a simplified optical system based on a Raspberry Pi 4 single-board computer with a modular camera. Under laboratory conditions, the satellite trajectory had simulated for an initial assessment of the compiled algorithmic modules of the computer vision library OpenCV.Based on the simulation results, dynamic detection of the International Space Station in real-time from the observation site with coordinates longitude 25o41′49″ East, latitude 53o52′36″ North in the interval 00:54:00–00:54:30 17.07.2021 (UTC + 03:00) had performed. The video processing result of the pass had demonstrated in the form of centroid coordinates of the International Space Station in the image plane with a timestamps interval of which is 0.2 s.This approach provides an autonomous raw data extraction of a space object for numerical methods for the initial determination of its orbit.

The development of space resource activities is happening now. In the absence of a clear framework to govern these activities, there is a need to examine the concepts that are being discussed to ensure that they meet existing treaty obligations regarding on-orbit operations and space resource rights. These concepts need to enable, support and coordinate the use of space resources. The international legal framework applies to space resource activities. Primary attention should be paid to the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty and The Moon Agreement. The utilization of space resources has potential for the future of humankind. To create an enabling environment for space resource activities, we have written the draft Law of Ukraine “On the Extraction and Utilization of Natural Resources of the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.” Provisions of this Draft establish rules concerning the jurisdiction and control over products created in space used in space activities actors and their programs for the extraction and exploitation of natural resources of space bodies, conditions of application of technology, equipment, and devices during the extraction and exploitation of natural resources of space bodies; admission, restriction, and prohibition of exploitation of resources of space bodies; public safety and environmental protection, responsibility for violating the law during the extraction and use of space resources. Establishing a legal framework for the extraction and use of resources from space bodies is a significant issue at present. International recognition of the legality of the use of space resources can ensure support for the legality of domestic laws on the use of space resources by international space law.

When solving a variety of celestial navigation tasks there is a problem of determining parameters of spacecraft motion and onboard primary payload orientation based on the coordinates of registered star images. Furthermore, unwanted objects, like active satellites, natural and artificial space debris, that reduce the probability of correct recognition may get into the field of view of a satellite sensor. This prompts the necessity to filter out such interference from the star field images. However, if the objects under recognition are bodies located in near-Earth space, in this case, the star images themselves will act as interferences. In addition, since the detection and cataloging of these objects from the Earth’s surface is complicated by their small size, the atmospheric effects, as well as other technical difficulties, it is worthwhile to use the existing equipment onboard spacecrafts to solve this task. The existing recognition algorithms for star groups, as well as their classification, are presented in this paper. Moreover, a structurally topological approach for identifying groups of stars based on the properties of enveloping polygons used in constructing topological star patterns is proposed. Specific features in the construction of topological configurations on the analyzed set of points, as well as the principles of dynamic space object detection within their limits are described. Results of the numerical experiments performed using the developed algorithm on the star field maps and model scenes are presented.

A methodology for assessing the relative effectiveness of alternative options for building space object diversion systems has been improved. An algorithm for assessing the effectiveness of the system of removal of space objects from near-Earth orbit based on the method of integral assessment is given. It makes it possible to simplify the process of optimal choice of the method to divert space objects and determine efficiency in the early phases of the life cycle of rocket and space technology objects. The use of the appropriate toolset makes it possible to build a system for assessing the effectiveness of projects for the removal of space objects from low Earth orbits using various diversion methods (active, passive, combined). The analysis of defining world indicators of evaluation of objects of rocket and space technology based on regulations by international space agencies has been carried out. An indicator of the total integrated relative efficiency of projects of space object diversion systems from low Earth orbits has been proposed, which makes it possible to build the removal of passive, active, and combined methods for leveling the risks of space activities. It is argued that the selected combined system using an autophagic launch vehicle could reduce environmental losses and, as a result, reduce compensation payments to owners of space objects. The possibilities of building combined systems with reusable engines have been considered in order to reduce such indicators as the period of diversion and reduction of operating costs due to fuel economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the analysis of the legal mechanisms of managing the orbital interactions of spacecraft that are pivotal for the development of space (orbital) systems. Scientific-theoretical research methods: abstraction, idealization, construction of hypotheses and models, documentary analysis and synthesis, objective truth, cognitive-analytical, etc. Results: the origin and contemporary genesis of constituent elements of the legal mechanisms of the management of orbital interactions of spacecraft and the problems of adapting these mechanisms to the trends of the "new space," are analyzed. The scientific aim is to contribute to the development of an adequate and integrated legal regime of the management of space systems and to improve the effectiveness of its institutional framework. Discussion: the evolution of the legal framework of international orbital interactions is analyzed on the background of the contemporary international space activities. The management of space systems needs comprehensive legal regulation and its harmonization with the respective regime of the leading space-faring nations. The inconsistency of international law with the practice of on-orbit interactions of spacecraft under the jurisdiction of different states, creates a risk of international conflict. The article formulates recommendations for improving the legal regime of orbital interactions arising from servicing spacecraft and de-orbiting them, in particular the licensing of such activities, their supervision, and the formation of institutional mechanisms for space systems management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the article, the authors considered the challenges for space law, which are created by the intensive development of production technologies of unmanned spacecrafts and space drones, as well as their use in the space industry. The authors clarified the term “space object”, which is used in the Space Law. This helped reveal the difference between the terms “unmanned spacecrafts” and “space drones”, which are synonymous in the Air Law. The authors investigated the basics of the space law and proved that in the existing formulations, the space law is not able to regulate the modern space exploration. Based on the study, the authors proposed: (1) to consolidate the influence of public organizations created in the space industry and specializing in the space exploration in the space law; (2) to change approaches to space law; space law should be considered as an effective regulator capable of ensuring the sustainable development of the mankind;. (3) under the space law, to create a holistic concept for using all types of space object on the Low Earth Orbit.

The small satellite industry has experienced unprecedented growth over the past four years. Nearly two hundred (200) small satellites were launched, with a weight ranging from one (1) to (50) kilograms. Attractively, this has led to the democratization of the space launch activity, providing the opportunity for various categories of people to explore space at lower cost. Hence, the importance of addressing the subject of small satellites within information and communication technologies, seems to be linked to a promising field which is "Satellite Internet", with the emergence of ambitious projects aiming to invest in "small satellites", in particular the "OneWeb" project targeting to launch more than 600 small satellites to connect the whole universe to internet. From there also emerges the importance of considering opportunities available in the insurance market to prevent the risks linked to the launch of small satellites through the analysis of the most significant comparative laws governing this field, such as American and English laws, French, Dutch and Russian laws. We also conducted a reading of certain insurance policies written to cover the risks of this activity, so to determine benefits of these comparative models and estimate the means of benefiting from them in our Arab legislations. Finally, this study also points out that the international and Arab legal framework, is no longer in line with the specificity of small satellites activity, which has led to the emergence of some organizational challenges in the field of international liability resulting from the space launch activity, as well as the extent of the possibility of insuring against its risks.

The small satellite industry has experienced unprecedented growth over the past four years. Nearly two hundred (200) small satellites were launched, with a weight ranging from one (1) to (50) kilograms. Attractively, this has led to the democratization of the space launch activity, providing the opportunity for various categories of people to explore space at lower cost. Hence, the importance of addressing the subject of small satellites within information and communication technologies, seems to be linked to a promising field which is "Satellite Internet", with the emergence of ambitious projects aiming to invest in "small satellites", in particular the "OneWeb" project targeting to launch more than 600 small satellites to connect the whole universe to internet. From there also emerges the importance of considering opportunities available in the insurance market to prevent the risks linked to the launch of small satellites through the analysis of the most significant comparative laws governing this field, such as American and English laws, French, Dutch and Russian laws. We also conducted a reading of certain insurance policies written to cover the risks of this activity, so to determine benefits of these comparative models and estimate the means of benefiting from them in our Arab legislations. Finally, this study also points out that the international and Arab legal framework, is no longer in line with the specificity of small satellites activity, which has led to the emergence of some organizational challenges in the field of international liability resulting from the space launch activity, as well as the extent of the possibility of insuring against its risks.

• The longitude maneuvers for space objects are studied based on dynamical model. • Single maneuver model and dual maneuver model are proposed. • Two maneuver detection methods are derived by solving these two maneuver models. There are approximately 2900 active space objects cataloged, and the number will increase continually in future. All these space objects may maneuver for some purpose occasionally, including highly elliptical orbit (HEO) transfer, station-keeping, orbit altitude adjustment, etc. Hence maneuver detection is very important for space situational awareness (SSA). It also plays an important role in the catalog maintenance by correlating the orbits before and after maneuver. In the paper, the maneuver detection methods based on orbital dynamical model are proposed. Firstly, the perturbations before and after maneuver are analyzed. Then two kinds of maneuver models are derived using the relative dynamical equations. Finally, several kinds of maneuver cases are performed to verify the models proposed. It is demonstrated that these two models are feasible and effective for the detection of longitude maneuvers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Space object material identification method based on Tucker decomposition is proposed and demonstrated experimentally. Space target generally has a low spatial resolution because of the limitation in detection distance. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) technology can capture the image from visible light to shortwave infrared continuously while providing the spatial and spectral information of the target, thereby introducing a new space target detection and identification approach. However, the data obtained by the HSI system often contain mixed pixels, thereby causing difficulties in target material identification. In this work, a material identification method of hyperspectral data based on Tucker decomposition is proposed by combining mixed spectral theory with tensor decomposition. The feasibility of the method is verified by using satellite model hyperspectral data with different spatial resolutions compared with the endmember obtained from the non-negative matrix decomposition (NMF), independent component analysis (ICA), tensor singular value decomposition (t-SVD). The average CORR of NMF, ICA, t-SVD and the proposed method is 0.2694, 0.5818, 0.6397 and 0.937, correspondingly. Therefore, the proposed method has demonstrated a more remarkable performance in terms of material identification, the analysis results of the material abundance distribution that used the proposed method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern studies in space require clarification of the term of “space object.” Because, for example, the ontology of the term of “space object” can be considered a) as from the point of view of astronomical approaches that include astrophysical identifiers, design specifications, components, subsystems, capabilities, vulnerabilities, origin, mission, elements of the orbit; b) both in terms of space law, where the term “space object” has a different meaning. This is an artificial object created by a person that can create emergency situations, harm human health, etc. As a holistic property complex consisting of facilities and equipment for the assembling, preparation and launching of spacecraft it should be subject to the regime of real estate for the state to control its circulation

INTRODUCTION. More than fifty years ago, on October 10th, 1967, the entry into force of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (“the Outer Space Treaty”) demonstrated the emergence of a new branch of international law: international outer space law (“ISL”). This article considers the contribution of the Russian Federation / U.S.S.R. and the United States and their leading lawyers and diplomats who were able to reach treaty cooperation even during the Cold War, and highlights the main historical legal steps on the way to signing of the Outer Space Treaty. The paper further focuses on the content of the Outer Space Treaty and other sources of ISL, and depicts approaches to interpretation of the treaty provisions with respect to actual legal challenges of space activities’ development, in the context of diverse economic, political and technological factors; as well as on the role of the Outer Space Treaty in the progressive development of ISL. MATERIALS AND METHODS. The theoretical background of this research consists of works of distinguished scholars and specialists in ISL as well as materials of diverse colloquiums, workshops and conferences on ISL. The analytical framework includes the Outer Space Treaty, other relevant international treaties; relevant UN GA resolutions; the 2001 Cape Town Convention and the 2012 Space Protocol; UN, COPUOS (including its subcommittees), ITU and UNIDROIT documents; national space legislation; documents and proceedings of the UNISPACE-III. The research is based on methods such as historical research, formal logic, including analysis, synthesis, analogy and modeling, as well as systematic, comparative and interpretation. RESEARCH RESULTS. Within the context of applicable principles and norms of the Outer Space Treaty, this article specifically provides an analysis of the related provisions of other sources of ISL, as well as unsettled legal issues such as 1) the international legal regime of natural resources of the Moon and other celestial bodies; 2) the use of the outer space solely for peaceful purposes; 3) the legal status of space tourists; 4) the legal regulation of commercial space activities involving a “foreign element” within the framework of the private international law and specifically private international space law (“PISL”); 5) the role of the 2001 Cape Town Convention and the 2012 Space Protocol in the context of international legal regulation of space activities, as well as, provided the entry into force of the Space Protocol, its role as the first specific international legal source of PISL; 6) International system of registration of interests in space assets as the third international system of registration related to space activities; 7) interpretation of Art. VIII of the Outer Space Treaty for the purposes of definition of law applicable to property rights over space objects located in the outer space; 8) “space object” and “space asset” as legal terms; 9) issues of international responsibility and liability, as well as extension of the scope of the concept of the “launching State”, including a proposal on addition of a potential fifth category; 10) registration and control; 11) International Space Station in the relevant legal framework; 12) ways of reaching of due relevance of international legal consequences for states resulted from the change of private law relations to the factual “participation” of the involved states in the corresponding space activities. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. After discussing the issues noted above, this paper concludes that: 1) it is in the interest of the Russian Federation, the United States of America and other space powers to consider the role of the Outer Space Treaty as the basis for further progressive development of ISL and inter alia for orderly development of commercial space activities; 2) some burning issues of ISL, as well as other related legal challenges, can be resolved by an authentic interpretation of Outer Space Treaty provisions (e.g. by adding other specific protocols to it, or by means of a universal comprehensive convention on international space law); 3) it is important to take into account both the distinction of subject matter, as well as the relationship and interaction between diverse applicable sources and branches of international law and also relevant national legislation regarding the search for solutions of space related legal issues noted above. In sum, one needs to follow a comprehensive inclusive and coherent approach, involving science diplomacy.

The development of space resource activities is happening now. In the absence of a clear framework to govern these activities, there is a need to examine the concepts that are being discussed to ensure that they meet existing treaty obligations regarding on-orbit operations and space resource rights. These concepts need to enable, support and coordinate the use of space resources. The international legal framework applies to space resource activities. Primary attention should be paid to the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty and The Moon Agreement. The utilization of space resources has potential for the future of humankind. To create an enabling environment for space resource activities, we have written the draft Law of Ukraine “On the Extraction and Utilization of Natural Resources of the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.” Provisions of this Draft establish rules concerning the jurisdiction and control over products created in space used in space activities actors and their programs for the extraction and exploitation of natural resources of space bodies, conditions of application of technology, equipment, and devices during the extraction and exploitation of natural resources of space bodies; admission, restriction, and prohibition of exploitation of resources of space bodies; public safety and environmental protection, responsibility for violating the law during the extraction and use of space resources. Establishing a legal framework for the extraction and use of resources from space bodies is a significant issue at present. International recognition of the legality of the use of space resources can ensure support for the legality of domestic laws on the use of space resources by international space law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asia-Pacific ground-based Optical Space object Observation System (APOSOS) is an international cooperation project, which is initiated and supported by Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO). Currently, APOSOS consists of three Observation Nodes in Pakistan, Peru and Iran, and a Data and Operation Management Center in National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Each Observation Node is equipped with a dedicated 15 cm aperture refracting telescope, which is capable of real-time astrometric data reduction. APOSOS aims to develop a tracking network of space object to acquire accurate astrometric measurements of space objects owned by APSCO member states. In this paper, we present an overview of APOSOS's design and development. The APOSOS's detecting capability of tracking a space object is darker than 12 m in LEO or 16 m in GEO, the size of which is equivalent to a diameter of 10-cm class in LEO or meter class in GEO respectively. A parametric estimation model is setup to profile APOSOS's capability in different tracking missions, which is verified by experimental observations. Preliminary results of tracking observations of SLR satellites showed that RMS of APOSOS astrometric measurements in RA/DEC is better than 5 ″ . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]