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This study aimed to identify the factors influencing land quality in a tropical agroecosystem of Jember Regency, East Java, Indonesia, using a minimum data set approach. A principal component analysis (PCA) approach was employed to derive a minimum data set from various land parameters, including soil texture, bulk density, soil depth, pH, CEC, SOC, available P, available K, drainage, slope, surface rock, irrigation infrastructure, erosion hazard, flood hazard, annual temperature, and climate type. Data from 105 sampling locations were analyzed to calculate the land quality index (LQI). The study found that six parameters significantly represent land quality: SOC (30.4%), effective soil depth (19.8%), available P (17.0%), available K (13.0%), erosion hazard (10.7%), and pH (8.9%). Long-term use of organic fertilizer can enhance land quality and prevent degradation. The study was limited to the Jember Regency and may not apply directly to other regions without adaptation. The findings can guide sustainable agricultural practices and land management in tropical regions, particularly in areas facing similar climatic and soil conditions. This study provides a quantitative assessment of land quality using a minimum data set in a tropical agroecosystem, filling a gap in the literature and offering a model for other regions to adopt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current cropping systems, like cover cropping, aim to improve soil health and crop productivity, with the former a more sustainable route to the latter. This can be done by evaluating the influence of cover crops (CCs) on soil health indicators, both abiotic and biotic, as is the objective of this study. Several CCs (crimson clover [Trifolium incarnatum L.], oats [Avena sativa], hairy vetch [Vicia villosa Roth.], winter wheat [Triticum aestivum L.], winter peas [Lathyrus hirsutus L.], flax [Linum usitassimum L.], triticale [Triticale hexaploide Lart.], cereal rye [Secale cereale], and barley [Hordeum vulgare L.]) were used across two research sites, set up using a completely randomized design with two levels of CCs (CC vs no cover crop [NC]) and three replicates during 2023. Soil samples were collected at 0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm depths and analyzed for soil physico-chemical properties and microbial biomass and composition. Results showed significantly lower bulk density values, greater water content (at 0 kPa soil water matric potential), greater volume-specific heat capacity (at 0 and -33 kPa soil water matric potential), greater total nitrogen, and numerically greater soil organic carbon under CC compared with NC management. This led to numerically greater microbial biomass and community composition (e.g., arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, eukaryotes, and fungi), and slightly lower microbial stress indicators (genotypic and chemical structure categorizations) under CC compared with NC management. However, the lack of significant differences between treatments suggests that three years is insufficient to detect improvements in measured soil health indicators. Further, the significant differences in measured soil health indicators between study sites suggests an influence of soil texture and order, and this warrants further investigations.

The assessment of soil health and the determination of carbon stability in soils are current challenges that have gained momentum through initiatives at national as well as international scales. However, inferring universally valid soil health parameters that are directly linked to carbon permanence remains challenging. Our aim was to evaluate the potential of simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) for an improved monitoring of soil health advances in the context of carbon farming strategies. For this purpose, an on-farm comparison of soil health in ten conservation agricultural systems with adjacent conventional farms was performed based on STA and thermal measures were related to key biological and physical indicators for monitoring soil functions. Using an autocorrelation-based approach, we identified independent thermal indicators, revealing that carbon farming efforts predominantly increased labile soil organic matter fractions in the range of 300–400 °C, while thermally more recalcitrant fractions did not respond to farming system transformation. Similarly, most soil health indicators revealed highest correlation with temperature ranges of mass loss of labile organic matter fractions. The relation of STA with commonly used soil health indicators was highest for soil organic carbon (SOC, r=0.971) and total nitrogen (TN, r=0.981). However, also inference on microbial activity parameters such as dimethylsulfoxid reduction, microbial biomass carbon and substrate-induced respiration could be demonstrated with r>0.663. The results thus highlight key temperature ranges of organic matter stability for future soil monitoring tasks of climate change mitigation potentials of carbon farming and related advances in soil health.

Soil functioning contributes to the delivery of a vast range of ecosystem goods and services, and ecosystem health is therefore reflected by the capacity of the soil to perform underlying functions. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a key indicator for soil quality as it is an integral driver of many soil functions and associated ecosystem services. Across the globe, SOC stocks are declining due to expanding agriculture and unsustainable practices. Awareness of the fact that soil is a non‐renewable resource and its functioning important for all life on Earth is increasing, especially among policymakers. As such, goals for the preservation and restoration of SOC are formulated in policies under the European Green Deal. However, the evaluation of these goals at the European level is hampered by a non‐harmonized diversity in national SOC monitoring strategies. While some SOC indicators can be useful for the evaluation of most policy goals (i.e., baseline and potential SOC stocks), additional and contrasting SOC data are often required for the evaluation of the goals formulated by the different EU directives. This study provides an overview of five ongoing SOC monitoring programmes across Europe and discusses how national programmes may be aligned to evaluate goals at the EU level. Five countries with very different soil monitoring programmes were included in a case study to illustrate the potential for harmonization and standardization of SOC assessment. Based on this study, we conclude that SOC monitoring strategies can be harmonized, but not standardized. We further suggest five sampling strategies that have potential for harmonization under the proposed Directive on Soil Monitoring and Resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil health plays a crucial role in crop production, both in terms of quality and quantity, highlighting the importance of effective methods for preserving soil quality to ensure global food security. Soil quality indices (SQIs) have been widely utilized as comprehensive measures of soil function by integrating multiple physical, chemical, and biological soil properties. Traditional SQI analysis involves laborious and costly laboratory analyses, which limits its practicality. To overcome this limitation, our study explores the use of visible near-infrared (vis-NIR) spectroscopy as a rapid and non-destructive alternative for predicting soil properties and SQIs. This study specifically focused on seven soil indicators that contribute to soil fertility, including pH, organic matter (OM), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), available phosphorous (P), and total nitrogen (TN). These properties play key roles in nutrient availability, pH regulation, and soil structure, influencing soil fertility and overall soil health. By utilizing vis-NIR spectroscopy, we were able to accurately predict the soil indicators with good accuracy using the Cubist model (R2 = 0.35–0.93), offering a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional laboratory analyses. Using the seven soil indicators, we looked at three different approaches for calculating and predicting the SQI, including: (1) measured SQI (SQI_m), which is derived from laboratory-measured soil properties; (2) predicted SQI (SQI_p), which is calculated using predicted soil properties from spectral data; and (3) direct prediction of SQI (SQI_dp), The findings demonstrated that SQI_dp exhibited a higher accuracy (R2 = 0.90) in predicting soil quality compared to SQI_p (R2 = 0.23). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses a dynamic economic model to take a holistic view of what constitutes soil health. The model considers actions taken over multiple periods of time to maximize the combined value of crop production, environmental quality, and investments in soil characteristics net of the costs of those actions. The model makes it clear that how soil health is assessed depends on the set of services soils provide and on the value that society places on those services. The temporal and spatial variability of those services and their values implies that the characteristics defining healthy soils will be location-specific and time-dependent. An additional implication is that an index of soil health valid for all places and times is unlikely to be feasible, although a soil health index that is “good enough” for specific locations at specific times may well be possible. Empirical evidence indicates that choices about managing soils generally involve tradeoffs, i.e., that “win-win” actions that increase agricultural productivity, improve environmental quality, and build up stocks of desirable soil characteristics are unlikely to occur. Assessments of soil health are most productively conducted by focusing on aspects of agricultural productivity, environmental quality, and soil characteristics of primary importance while ignoring those of secondary importance. Greater interdisciplinary cooperation between economists, soil scientists, and environmental scientists is likely the most fruitful path for making progress in developing methods for measuring soil health.

Considering future tasks in soil health, resource management, and environmental protection, farmers are challenged to develop sustainable strategies for managing soil and land resources. In this study, the long-term sustainability of two fertilization strategies—current, with synthetic fertilizers (SYN) vs. conservative, with organic sources of nitrogen (organic amendments plus green manure with a legume, CONS)—was assessed in a processing tomato/durum wheat rotation. The EPIC model was used, validated with field data, and then run to simulate the management for 30 years under three current and future climates. Yield, soil organic carbon (SOC) stock change, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), water use efficiency (WUE), and nitrate leaching were considered sustainability indicators. Under all of the future climate scenarios, tomato yield increased with CONS, remaining almost stable with SYN. Wheat yield increased both with CONS and SYN; however, the average yield with CONS was considerably lower than with SYN. NUE and nitrate leaching followed the same trend, both decreasing with CONS, while WUE was higher with CONS compared to SYN. The effect of CONS on SOC was always positive. Thus, the alternative N fertilization strategy proposed can be a favorable option for maintaining soil health and sustainable crop production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil health metrics with strong links to ecological function and agricultural productivity are needed to ensure that future management of agricultural systems meets sustainability goals. While ecological metrics and crop yields are often considered separately from one another, our work sought to assess the links between the two in an agricultural context where productivity is a key consideration. Here, we investigated the value of soil health tests in terms of their relevance to agricultural management practices and crop yields at contrasting long term cropping systems experiments. One site was on a sandy loam Leptic Podzol and the other on a sandy clay loam Endostagnic Luvisol. Furthermore, the experiments had different management systems. One contained legume-supported rotations with different grass-clover ley durations and organic amendment usage, while the other compared a range of nutrient input options through fertiliser and organic amendments on the same rotation without ley periods. Metrics included field tests (earthworm counts and visual evaluation of soil structure scores) with laboratory analysis of soil structure, chemistry and biology. This analysis included bulk density, macroporosity, pH, available phosphorus, exchangeable potassium, soil organic matter and potentially mineralizable nitrogen. Using a novel combination of long-term experiments, management systems and distinctive soil types, we demonstrated that as well as providing nutrients, agricultural management which resulted in better soil organic matter, pH, potassium and bulk density was correlated with higher crop yields. The importance of ley duration and potentially mineralizable nitrogen to yield in legume-supported systems showed the impact of agricultural management on soil biology. In systems with applications of synthetic fertiliser, earthworm counts and visual evaluation of soil structure scores were correlated with higher yields. We concluded that agricultural management altered yields not just through direct supply of nutrients to crops, but also through the changes in soil health measured by simple metrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of wheat and maize rotations and the application of plant-animal compost on potato bacterial wilt and yield was investigated. The proposed method was tested in three separate locations, each two acres in size, with an untreated control. The first two were naturally infested, but the third was pathogen-free. Infested locations that had been treated experienced a significant reduction in disease incidence. The addition of a bio-fertilizer mixture (Azotobacter sp., Azospirillum sp., Bacillus megaterium, and Bacillus circulans) improved the compost's suppressive potential. The method increased soil organic matter (SOM), N, P, K, Ca+2, and Mg+2 while decreasing Na+ levels and increasing potato yield. The relative abundance of Ralstonia decreased while that of Arthrobacter, Streptomyces, and Nocardioides increased. The presence of Gracilibacillus, Cellvibrio, Bacillus, and Paenibacillus was associated with a decrease in Ralstonia, whereas the presence of Propionibacterium (a nitrogen-fixing bacteria) was associated with an increase in Ralstonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increase in agriculture production to meet the food demand of growing human population from a limited availability of arable land with low environmental footprints and preserving natural resources (soil, water and air) simultaneously are major challenges in South Asia. The situation is further complicated by the climate change, which will further lower the food production, compounding the challenge of meeting food demand. Conservation Agriculture (CA) is solution to several challenges being faced in farming such as soil health, climate change, water scarcity, agricultural pollution, farm profitability, human health, etc. This exhaustive review examines the published literature from South Asia to assess the impact of CA on soil organic carbon (SOC) and the subsequent impacts on soil health (physical, chemical and biological properties), C sequestration and greenhouse gases emissions in major cropping systems. The results from several studies demonstrated that CA increased SOC and improved soil health parameters, mainly in the surface soil layer. The effects of CA on the changes in soil pH and electrical conductivity are small. The CA showed a remarkable positive impact on the nutrient availability in the soil. The CA system helped in both climate change mitigation and adaptation for sustainable crop production. The present gaps in our knowledge in soil health assessment and research agenda to fill the gaps are also included in this chapter. We hope this review of past accomplishments, current activities, and future opportunities will stimulate additional soil health research throughout the 21st century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Promoting sustainable crop production is enhanced by an effective method to assess soil health. However, soil health assessment is challenging due to multiple interactions among dynamic soil properties (i.e., soil health indicators) across management practices and agroecological regions. We tested several currently popular soil health assessment methods for cropping systems in Tennessee in the southeastern US and found that these methods failed to differentiate Tennessee soil health under long-term conservation and conventional management. Materials and methods: This study developed a Tennessee weighted soil health index (WSHI) by: 1) selecting a set of management-sensitive soil health indicators, 2) assigning meaningful weights to indicators, and 3) normalizing the scores based on regionally relevant undisturbed natural reference sites. The tested cropping systems treatments were moldboard plow (MP) in continuous soybean (SS), no tillage (NT) in SS, NT with wheat cover (NTW) in SS, no cover and chisel plow (NCCT) in continuous cotton (CC), no cover and no tillage (NCNT) in CC, and hairy vetch cover and no tillage (VCNT) in CC. In addition, two woodlots and one grassland sites in the vicinity of the cropping systems were selected to represent undisturbed natural systems. Results and discussion: Out of 22 indicators that proved to be managementsensitive, six were selected as a minimum dataset (MDS). These were particulate organic matter C (POM-C), soil respiration from 4-day incubation (4d CO2), small macroaggregate (0.250-2mm)-associated C (SMA-C), surface hardness (PR15), microbial biomass N (MBN), and bulk density (BD). Measured values of the MDS indicators were transformed into unitless normalized scores (based on the regional range of the indicator), and finally integrated into WSHI scores using a weighted-addition approach. Additionally, the soil health gap (SHG) between the soil health of the regional reference system and different cropping systems was calculated. Results revealed that WSHI strongly differentiated soil health between long-term conservation and conventional managements practices. The WSHI scores for southeastern cropland soils varied as follows: VCNT = NTW > NT > NCNT = NCCT = MP. The SHGs under MP, NCCT, NCNT, NT, NTW, and VCNT were 85.5, 79.9, 68, 45.1, 25.2, and 24.3, respectively, relative to the average WSHI of three undisturbed systems. Results showed that the WSHI approach is effective in more meaningful regional assessment of soil health and SHG can be a potential metric for comparing soil health across agroecological regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Rice production is a major economic activity in the department of Tolima, Colombia. However, conventional agronomic practices have led to soil depletion. In contrast, within the same region, traditional Indigenous Pijao systems persist, characterized by a high degree of crop diversification as well as no or reduced use of agrochemicals and mechanization. Objective. To evaluate soil health over time in rice monocultures and traditional Pijao agroecosystems in Colombia. Methodology. Data was collected between May and September 2019 at four municipalities in an Andean valley. Experimental units were arranged in four treatments classified according to a chrono sequence of consecutive rice monoculture: agroecosystems in which rice has never been planted or ‘traditional Pijao agroecosystems’ (TPA); rice monoculture for 5 to 10 years or ‘young rice agroecosystems’ (YRA); for 10 to 20 years or ‘medium rice agroecosystems’ (MRA); and for more than 20 years or ‘old rice agroecosystems’ (ORA). Twelve indicators were evaluated in each experimental unit: physical (penetration resistance, water infiltration, bulk density, and soil structural index), chemical (pH, CEC/CL%, EC, SOC), and biological (microbial respiration, earthworm abundance, and diversity of arthropods and plants) indicators. Results. Physical and chemical indicators did not present significant differences among the four chrono sequences evaluated. However, TPA obtained the highest values for SOC, structural stability index, and microbial respiration in comparison with conventional rice agroecosystems. Diversity of arthropods and plants significantly differed among the four treatments. Implications. Results suggest that traditional Pijao agroecosystems promote arthropod diversity and plant (weed and crop species) diversity, contributing to a greater sustainability of the region’s agroecosystems. Conclusions. The study illustrates the most relevant soil health indicators for the tropical dry forest zone of southern Tolima are those providing information on soil diversity, structural stability, compaction, and microbial respiration.

IntroductionPromoting sustainable crop production is enhanced by an effective method to assess soil health. However, soil health assessment is challenging due to multiple interactions among dynamic soil properties (i.e., soil health indicators) across management practices and agroecological regions. We tested several currently popular soil health assessment methods for cropping systems in Tennessee in the southeastern US and found that these methods failed to differentiate Tennessee soil health under long-term conservation and conventional management.Materials and methodsThis study developed a Tennessee weighted soil health index (WSHI) by: 1) selecting a set of management-sensitive soil health indicators, 2) assigning meaningful weights to indicators, and 3) normalizing the scores based on regionally relevant undisturbed natural reference sites. The tested cropping systems treatments were moldboard plow (MP) in continuous soybean (SS), no tillage (NT) in SS, NT with wheat cover (NTW) in SS, no cover and chisel plow (NCCT) in continuous cotton (CC), no cover and no tillage (NCNT) in CC, and hairy vetch cover and no tillage (VCNT) in CC. In addition, two woodlots and one grassland sites in the vicinity of the cropping systems were selected to represent undisturbed natural systems.Results and discussionOut of 22 indicators that proved to be management-sensitive, six were selected as a minimum dataset (MDS). These were particulate organic matter C (POM-C), soil respiration from 4-day incubation (4d CO2), small macroaggregate (0.250-2mm)-associated C (SMA-C), surface hardness (PR15), microbial biomass N (MBN), and bulk density (BD). Measured values of the MDS indicators were transformed into unitless normalized scores (based on the regional range of the indicator), and finally integrated into WSHI scores using a weighted-addition approach. Additionally, the soil health gap (SHG) between the soil health of the regional reference system and different cropping systems was calculated. Results revealed that WSHI strongly differentiated soil health between long-term conservation and conventional managements practices. The WSHI scores for southeastern cropland soils varied as follows: VCNT = NTW > NT > NCNT ≥ NCCT ≥ MP. The SHGs under MP, NCCT, NCNT, NT, NTW, and VCNT were 85.5, 79.9, 68, 45.1, 25.2, and 24.3, respectively, relative to the average WSHI of three undisturbed systems. Results showed that the WSHI approach is effective in more meaningful regional assessment of soil health and SHG can be a potential metric for comparing soil health across agroecological regions.

Soil health plays a crucial role in crop production, both in terms of quality and quantity, highlighting the importance of effective methods for preserving soil quality to ensure global food security. Soil quality indices (SQIs) have been widely utilized as comprehensive measures of soil function by integrating multiple physical, chemical, and biological soil properties. Traditional SQI analysis involves laborious and costly laboratory analyses, which limits its practicality. To overcome this limitation, our study explores the use of visible near-infrared (vis-NIR) spectroscopy as a rapid and non-destructive alternative for predicting soil properties and SQIs. This study specifically focused on seven soil indicators that contribute to soil fertility, including pH, organic matter (OM), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), available phosphorous (P), and total nitrogen (TN). These properties play key roles in nutrient availability, pH regulation, and soil structure, influencing soil fertility and overall soil health. By utilizing vis-NIR spectroscopy, we were able to accurately predict the soil indicators with good accuracy using the Cubist model (R2 = 0.35–0.93), offering a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional laboratory analyses. Using the seven soil indicators, we looked at three different approaches for calculating and predicting the SQI, including: (1) measured SQI (SQI_m), which is derived from laboratory-measured soil properties; (2) predicted SQI (SQI_p), which is calculated using predicted soil properties from spectral data; and (3) direct prediction of SQI (SQI_dp), The findings demonstrated that SQI_dp exhibited a higher accuracy (R2 = 0.90) in predicting soil quality compared to SQI_p (R2 = 0.23).

Considering future tasks in soil health, resource management, and environmental protection, farmers are challenged to develop sustainable strategies for managing soil and land resources. In this study, the long-term sustainability of two fertilization strategies—current, with synthetic fertilizers (SYN) vs. conservative, with organic sources of nitrogen (organic amendments plus green manure with a legume, CONS)—was assessed in a processing tomato/durum wheat rotation. The EPIC model was used, validated with field data, and then run to simulate the management for 30 years under three current and future climates. Yield, soil organic carbon (SOC) stock change, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), water use efficiency (WUE), and nitrate leaching were considered sustainability indicators. Under all of the future climate scenarios, tomato yield increased with CONS, remaining almost stable with SYN. Wheat yield increased both with CONS and SYN; however, the average yield with CONS was considerably lower than with SYN. NUE and nitrate leaching followed the same trend, both decreasing with CONS, while WUE was higher with CONS compared to SYN. The effect of CONS on SOC was always positive. Thus, the alternative N fertilization strategy proposed can be a favorable option for maintaining soil health and sustainable crop production.

Numerous conservation and regeneration practices are recognized as effective strategies in the management of soil health (SH), a critical factor for ensuring the sustainability of food production systems. Despite their acknowledged importance, the multifaceted impacts of these practices often lead to confounding effects, and reliance on generic categorization of agronomic practices often falls short in portraying the drivers of SH. We advocate for a paradigm shift from a label-centric approach to one rooted in processes. Our study underscores the pivotal role of aboveground biomass cycling as an indicator for assessing the potential of agronomic management practices to instigate shifts in carbon balances, and, consequently SH. Drawing on soil physical, biological, and chemical SH data from three Uruguayan long-term experiments on Pampas region Mollisols we (i) present quantitative evidence of the importance of evaluating SH through biomass inputs, and (ii) illustrate the applicability of the proposed framework for evaluating different scenarios of land management for the region. Management-induced variations in aboveground biomass inputs accounted for 50 % of the observed changes in a composite soil's physical and biological SH index and helped explain the inconsistent effect of management practices. Raising the SH Index by ten points required an increase in biomass inputs of over 50 Mg ha⁻¹. Based on this concept, substantial enhancements in SH can be made by narrowing yield gaps and intensifying cropping sequences over many years. The benefits of practices such as increased crop diversification, integration of perennial and cover crops, or reduced tillage in promoting SH depend in part on their ability to augment biomass production. This nuanced understanding underscores the importance of aligning agronomic strategies with the fundamental processes driving SH dynamics. • Changes in aboveground biomass inputs generated by conservation strategies can predict changes in soil health (SH). • Reducing crop yield gaps and intensifying cropping sequences are good strategies for SH conservation. • Potential changes in SH might be limited by initial SH conditions and regional photosynthetic capacity. • Changes in biomass needed for SH improvements cannot be achieved on the short term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The assessment of soil health and the determination of carbon stability in soils are current challenges that have gained momentum through initiatives at national as well as international scales. However, inferring universally valid soil health parameters that are directly linked to carbon permanence remains challenging. Our aim was to evaluate the potential of simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) for an improved monitoring of soil health advances in the context of carbon farming strategies. For this purpose, an on-farm comparison of soil health in ten conservation agricultural systems with adjacent conventional farms was performed based on STA and thermal measures were related to key biological and physical indicators for monitoring soil functions. Using an autocorrelation-based approach, we identified independent thermal indicators, revealing that carbon farming efforts predominantly increased labile soil organic matter fractions in the range of 300–400 ° C , while thermally more recalcitrant fractions did not respond to farming system transformation. Similarly, most soil health indicators revealed highest correlation with temperature ranges of mass loss of labile organic matter fractions. The relation of STA with commonly used soil health indicators was highest for soil organic carbon (SOC, r = 0. 971) and total nitrogen (TN, r = 0. 981). However, also inference on microbial activity parameters such as dimethylsulfoxid reduction, microbial biomass carbon and substrate-induced respiration could be demonstrated with r > 0. 663. The results thus highlight key temperature ranges of organic matter stability for future soil monitoring tasks of climate change mitigation potentials of carbon farming and related advances in soil health. • We tested simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) as a tool for soil health assessment. • We did so by an on-farm comparison of conventional and conservation farming systems. • Improvements by conservation farming were mainly detected for labile C fractions. • Specific STA mass loss ranges correlated well with several soil health indicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on current evidence and established critical thresholds for soil degradation indicators, it is concerning that over 60–70% of European soils are unhealthy due to unsustainable management and the impact of climate change. Despite European and national efforts to improve soil health, significant gaps remain. The proposal for a Soil Monitoring and Resilience Law, to be implemented by the European Union, seeks to establish a framework for soil monitoring and promote sustainable management practices to achieve healthy soils by 2050. This requires extensive data collection and soil monitoring systems to accurately estimate soil health across Europe, considering the diversity of soil types, climates, and land uses. To establish a framework for soil monitoring, we must understand the site-specific status of soil and the ranges of soil health indicators across specific pedoclimatic regions. In our study, we evaluated the soil status in agricultural areas in Denmark using soil health indicators and a site-specific benchmarking approach. We compiled nationally representative datasets, combining point and model-informed data of soil parameters such as organic carbon content, bulk density, pH, electrical conductivity, clay-to-soil organiccarbon ratio, water erosion, and nitrogen leaching. By categorizing Danish agricultural soils into monitoring units based on textural classes, landscape elements, and wetland types, we calculated benchmarks for these indicators, considering different cropping systems. Our approach provided detailed point-based results and a spatially explicit overview of the status of soil health indicators in Denmark. We identified areas where soil deviates from the benchmarks of different indicators. Such deviations might indicate soil functions operating outside the normal range, posing potential threats to soil health. This proposed framework could support the establishment of a baseline for assessing the directionality of future changes in soil health. Moreover, it is adaptable for implementation by other countries to support assessments of soil health. • Our proposed framework involves soil monitoring units as a basis for future soil health assessment. • We present a benchmarking approach to spatially assess the status of soil health indicators in Denmark. • The indicators distribution provides benchmarks to identify strengths and weaknesses in soil monitoring. • We propose an application of digital soil mapping products to derive a continuous view of the status of soil health indicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change and soil fertility decline are major threats to smallholder farmers' food and nutrition security in southern Africa, and cropping systems that improve soil health are needed to address these challenges. Cropping systems that invest in soil organic matter, such as no-tillage (NT) with crop residue retention, have been proposed as potential solutions. However, a key challenge for assessing the sustainability of NT systems is that soil carbon (C) stocks develop over long timescales, and there is an urgent need to identify trajectory indicators of sustainability and crop productivity. Here we examined the effects of NT as compared with conventional tillage without residue retention on relationships between soil characteristics and maize (Zea mays L.) productivity in long-term on-farm and on-station trials in Zimbabwe. Our results show that relationships between soil characteristics and maize productivity, and the effects of management on these relationships, varied with soil type. Total soil nitrogen (N) and C were strong predictors of maize grain yield and above-ground biomass (i.e., stover) in the clayey soils, but not in the sandy soils, under both managements. This highlights context-specific benefits of management that fosters the accumulation of soil C and N stocks. Despite a strong effect of NT management on soil C and N in sandy soils, this accrual was not sufficient to support increased crop productivity in these soils. We suggest that sandy soils should be the priority target of NT with organic resource inputs interventions in southern Africa, as mineral fertilizer inputs alone will not halt the soil fertility decline. This will require a holistic management approach and input of C in various forms (e.g., biomass from cover crops and tree components, crop residues, in combination with mineral fertilizers). Clayey soils on the other hand have greater buffering capacity against detrimental effects of soil tillage and low C input. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past decade soil health has been intensively studied as a science and practiced as a means to help improve the global social, environmental, and economic sustainability. This paper reviews the recent advances of the scientific soil health system. The current understanding and interpretation of soil health from the perspectives of soil functions, processes, and properties is summarized. Multi-tier soil health indicators were selected from relevant soil physical, chemical, and biological parameters. A suite of soil health assessment methods have been developed, such as soil health card, Solvita soil health tests, Haney soil health test, and comprehensive assessment of soil health. An array of soil health management practices have been recommended, including proper land use, crop rotation, cover crops, conservation tillage, soil organic amendment, crop-range-livestock integration, and rotational grazing. Overall, the recommended soil health indicators and assessment methods need further validation and improvement in relevance, scientific validity, practicality, and local adaptation. Continuous research, education, and outreach efforts are warranted to promote localized development, adoption, and implementation of soil health assessment and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To achieve higher system productivity and better soil health under rice‒based cropping systems, this study was conducted to ascertain the best agricultural and nutrient management strategies. The study involved four cropping systems (CS) comprising direct seeded basmati rice (DSBR)‒wheat (CS1), DSBR‒wheat‒greengram (CS2), DSBR‒cabbage‒greengram (CS3) and DSBR‒cabbage‒onion (CS4) under different nutrient management strategies (NMS) comprising of control (NS0), 100% recommended dose of N, P and K fertilizers (RDF-NPK) (NS1), 50% RDF + 25% recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN) through leaf compost (LC) + biofertilizer (NS2), 50% RDF + 25% RDN through vermicompost (VC) + biofertilizer (NS3) and was carried out for two consecutive years. At the end of study, soil carbon fractions, bulk density and water stable aggregates were significantly (p < 0.05) higher under integrated NMS as compared to control and RDF alone. Soil biological parameters such as dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and microbial biomass carbon increased significantly (p < 0.05) in all three seasons (rainy, winter and summer) under integrated NMS (NS2 and NS3) plots, as compared to NS0 and NS1. Inclusion of greengram in rice–based cropping systems and combined use of inorganic and organic nutrient sources resulted in positive influence on soil health parameters and sustaining system productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Widespread occurrence of acid soils across the globe is a serious issue in agriculture that has been generally managed with intensive use of chemical amendments. Although green microalgae are the primary colonizers of soils even under extreme acid conditions, only a few investigations focused on their role in health improvement of such soils. In this study we tested the hypothesis: that acid‐tolerant microalgae have the potential for ameliorating soil acidity and enhancing soil health through enrichment of carbon content, exopolysaccharides, indole acetic acid besides stimulating dehydrogenase activity in acid soils. Inoculation of two acid soils collected from Australian fields with acid‐tolerant microalgae, Desmodesmus sp. MAS1 and Heterochlorella sp. MAS3, alone or in combination, resulted initially in the development of a soil algal crust as evidenced by significant increase in chlorophyll a in both the soils. Also, there was a significant increase (>200%) in the release of exopolysaccharides that facilitated soil aggregate stability. The increase in soil pH was about one unit (from 4.8 to 5.6 in soil A or 4.3–5.3 in soil B) under the influence of individual or co‐cultures of the microalgal strains after 90 days. Algalized acid soils exhibited a significant increase in carbon content (29–57%), dehydrogenase activity (>500%) and production of indole acetic acid (200–500%). Thus, the present study reports for the first time on the great potential of green microalgae in amelioration of acid soils besides improving soil health and fertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of plant nutrition systems that enhance soil productivity through the use of mineral fertilizers combined with organic fertilizers has recently gained increased attention. Two field experiments were conducted in 2018 (from February to June) and 2018/19 (from December 2018 to April 2019) to assess the effects of complementary application of inorganic nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilizers (INPF) and winery solid waste (WSW) composts on maize yield and soil health indicators. The INPF and optimum rates of microbially inoculated and uninoculated WSW compost types were combined at different ratios (0:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100 w/w) to supply proportionate N and P amount. The recommended INPF rates for maize (200 kg N ha-1 and 90 kg P ha-1) were mixed and included as a standard control. The interaction of compost type and application rate had no significant effects on total biomass yield (TBY), grain yield (GY) and harvest index (HI). The compost type had significant effects on GY and HI in 2018/19. The TBYs obtained from the 50:50, 75:25 and 100:0 compost-INPF combinations were significantly higher than that recorded from untreated control across the compost types in 2018. The 25:75 and 50:50 compost-INPF combinations gave GYs which were significantly higher than that obtained from the untreated control in 2018/19. In many instances, soil pH and the contents of organic C, NO3, P, K, Na and Zn recorded from treatments with the different mix ratios of compost and INPF were higher than that recorded from the untreated control. Grain yield correlated significantly and positively with the contents of soil NH4 (r = 0.59) and P (r = 0.53) indicating that these nutrients contributed to the final GY. In conclusion, the joint application of compost and INPF at 25:75 and 50:50 ratios appears promising for improving GY. Increase in soil K content suggested the need for a controlled application of WSW compost followed by frequent soil testing exercise to monitor and avoid unnecessary K build-up that may induce the deficiencies of other plant nutrients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The phrase “soil health” describes the condition of a soil in terms of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. The relationship between soil health and crop yield is rather complex, and quantifying their spatial characteristics at field scale is often limited in the literature. To explore the significance and spatial characteristics of soil health and its indicators in crop production, field-based research was conducted in 2018 at the Blackland Research Center, Texas with the following objectives: (i) to quantify soil health indicators of the Haney Soil Health Tool across a corn field; (ii) to relate soil health status to drought-year corn yield using geospatial techniques; and (iii) to evaluate the relationship among soil health, corn yield, and soils types. We collected 218 samples from 0 to 10 cm soil depth in a 27-ha field following a 35 m × 35 m grid sampling scheme. Samples were analyzed for water extractable organic carbon (WEOC), total nitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen, ammoniacal-nitrogen, and 24-hr CO2 evolution (1-day CO2). Analyses results were used to calculate a soil health value based on Haney Soil Health Tool. The field had an average soil health value of 8.5 (±2.2), and corn yield of 2.9 t ha−1 (±1.3); however, corn yield was more variable (CV > 43%) than soil health (CV = 26.7%). Overall, soil samples with lower values of 1-day CO2, WEOC, and organic nitrogen indicated a lower soil health value, which generally corresponding to lower corn yield. Corn yield may be weakly predicted by soil health (Corn yield = −0.29 + 0.39 × Soil health value, R2 = 0.28). Soil type and rainfall exhibited measurable effects upon the calculated soil health value; corn yields were greater for Houston Black clay than Austin silt clay under drought-year conditions. The variation in drought-year corn yield can be explained by the soil health and its indicators in Texas Blackland soils. Further research is necessary to verify the relationship in differing soil types, management scenarios, and annual rainfall totals.

Agricultural intensification has resulted in a decline in soil biodiversity, and concerns about the deterioration of the biological condition of soils prompted the development of measures to restore soil life. Due to the overwhelming biodiversity of soils, evaluation of such measures is not straightforward, and proxies are used to assess soil health. Because of their trophic diversity, high abundance, and relatively well-characterized ecologies, nematodes are often used as soil health indicators. However, the scarcity of informative morphological characters hampers the upscaling of this proxy. Here we present a community analysis approach that uses nanopore sequencing to generate full-length sequences of small subunit ribosomal DNAs (SSU rDNA). Cover cropping is a common agricultural practice that stimulates soil life, and we mapped the effects of ten cover crop treatments on nematode communities in a field experiment. These analyses included the monitoring of a high-impact plant-parasite, Meloidogyne chitwoodi. In total, 132 nematode samples were analyzed, and 65 nematode taxa were detected, mostly at the species level, including representatives of all trophic groups. As a validation, all samples were analyzed microscopically for M. chitwoodi, and a comparison of count and DNA read data revealed highly similar results. Treatments did not only affect plant-parasitic nematodes but also free-living nematodes in a cover crop-specific manner. Free-living nematodes from the same trophic group, and even congeneric species, responded differentially to plant-mediated manipulations of the soil microbiome. Hence, nanopore-based SSU rDNA sequencing could facilitate a substantial refinement of the use of nematodes as indicators for soil health. • An Oxford Nanopore-based workflow allows mapping of nematode communities • This workflow mostly offers resolution till species level • Stimulation of Meloidogyne chitwoodi negatively affects other plant parasites • Indirect plant effects were observed within the free-living nematode community • A species-specific impact of cover crops on root lesion nematodes was demonstrated [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil ecosystem perturbation due to agronomic practices can negatively impact soil productivity by altering the diversity and function of soil health determinants. Currently, the influence of rice cultivation and off-season periods on the dynamics of soil health determinants is unclear. Therefore, soil enzyme activities (EAs) and bacterial community compositions in rice-cultivated fields at postharvest (PH) and after a 5-month off-season period (5mR), and fallow-fields (5-years-fallow, 5YF; 10-years-fallow, 10YF and/or one-year-fallow, 1YF) were assessed in two agroecological regions of Mozambique. EAs were mostly higher in fallow fields than in PH, with significant (p < 0.05) differences detected for β-glucosidase and acid phosphatase activities. Only β-glucosidase activity was significantly (p < 0.05) different between PH and 5mR, suggesting that β-glucosidase is responsive in the short-term. Bacterial diversity was highest in rice-cultivated soil and correlated with NO3−, NH4+ and electrical conductivity. Differentially abundant genera, such as Agromyces, Bacillus, Desulfuromonas, Gaiella, Lysobacter, Micromonospora, Norcadiodes, Rubrobacter, Solirubrobacter and Sphingomonas were mostly associated with fallow and 5mR fields, suggesting either negative effects of rice cultivation or the fallow period aided their recovery. Overall, rice cultivation and chemical parameters influenced certain EAs and shaped bacterial communities. Furthermore, the 5-month off-season period facilitates nutrient recovery and proliferation of plant-growth-promoting bacteria.

Integrated crop and livestock systems (ICLS) have the potential to minimize soil degradation, improve soil health, and maximize food production. Our goal was to evaluate the impact of no-till (NT) in association with ICLS on soil health and soybean yield in Inceptisol and Oxisol soils in Southern Brazil. The response of physical, chemical, and biological soil health indicators to soil and crop management systems was measured over the short- (<5 years) and long-term (>10 years) under ICLS with soybean in spring/summer and forage grazed by cattle in the autumn/winter. A soil management index was calculated for each soil based on ICLS management. Independent of soil type, ICLS in association with NT for 10+ years improved chemical and biological properties in the near soil surface (0–6 cm depth). The Soil Management Assessment Framework (SMAF) scores for soil organic carbon (SOC), phosphorus (P), and bulk density were close to 1.0 in the Inceptisol, independent of management or soil depth, while the pH scores were lower in the ICLS topsoil. For the Oxisol, the SMAF scores for SOC and P were approximately 1.0 in the 0–6 cm depth under long-term ICLS. The SMAF overall soil quality index was high (approximately 0.9) for both soils and there were no significant differences between management practices. Overall, the adoption of ICLS in association with NT (i) improved or maintained soil health, (ii) promoted soil carbon sequestration, and (iii) increased soybean yield in the studied soils. This study confirmed the potential for conservation practices (ICLS combined with NT) to improve soil quality with environmental sustainability. • Soil compaction increases hydric restrictions and decreases crops yield. • Conservation agricultural practices positively affected soil nutrients. • Integrated crop-livestock systems promote higher stocks of carbon. • Conservation agriculture practices have the potential to maintain or improve soil health. • The overall soil quality index was high under conservation systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The continuous cropping (CC) of major agricultural, horticultural, and industrial crops is an established practice worldwide, though it has significant soil health-related concerns. However, a combined review of the effects of CC on soil health indicators, in particular omics ones, remains missing. The CC may negatively impact multiple biotic and abiotic indicators of soil health, fertility, and crop yield. It could potentially alter the soil biotic indicators, which include but are not limited to the composition, abundance, diversity, and functioning of soil micro- and macro-organisms, microbial networks, enzyme activities, and soil food web interactions. Moreover, it could also alter various soil abiotic (physicochemical) properties. For instance, it could increase the accumulation of toxic metabolites, salts, and acids, reduce soil aggregation and alter the composition of soil aggregate-size classes, decrease mineralization, soil organic matter, active carbon, and nutrient contents. All these alterations could accelerate soil degradation. Meanwhile, there is still a great need to develop quantitative ranges in soil health indicators to mechanistically predict the impact of CC on soil health and crop yield gaps. Following ecological principles, we strongly highlight the significance of inter-, mixture-, and rotation-cropping with cover crops to sustain soil health and agricultural production.

Soil health plays a major role in the ability of any nation to meet the Sustainable Development Goals. Understanding the spatial variability of soil health indicators (SHIs) may help decision makers develop effective policy strategies and make appropriate management decisions. SHIs are often spatially correlated, and if this is the case, a geostatistical model is required to capture the spatial interactions and uncertainty. Geostatistical simulation provides equally probable realizations that can account for uncertainty in the variables. This study used the following SHIs extracted from the Africa Soil Information Service “Legacy Database” for Nigeria: bulk density, organic matter, and total nitrogen. Maximum and minimum autocorrelation factors (MAF) and independent component analysis (ICA) are two techniques that can be used to transform correlated SHIs into uncorrelated factors/components that can be simulated independently. To confirm spatial orthogonality, the relative deviation from orthogonality, τ(h), and spatial diagonalization efficiency, k(h), approach 0 and 1 for both techniques. To validate the performance of each technique, 100 equally probable realizations were simulated by using MAF and ICA. Direct and cross-variograms showed adequate reproduction, using E-type, where E was defined as the “conditional expectation” of realizations (i.e., average estimate of realizations). It should be noted that only direct variograms of MAF and ICA were independently simulated. The average of 100 back-transformed simulated realizations and randomly selected realizations compared well with the original variables, in terms of spatial distribution, correlation, and pattern. Overall, both techniques were able to reproduce important geostatistical features of the original variables, making them important in joint simulations of spatially correlated variables in soil management.

The Ogallala Aquifer is one of the largest freshwater aquifers in the world. It acts as a valuable resource in agriculture, animal production, and public water supplies across eight Great Plains states. However, with high irrigation demand, low recharge rates across most of the region, and extreme climate variability, the Ogallala Aquifer has become an exhaustible resource. Some areas of the Ogallala Aquifer region (OAR) are challenged with the transition of irrigated crop systems to dryland production and how to select sustainable management practices to conserve water and soil health. The main goal of this review is to identify the role of soil health in adapting to extreme climate variability with reduced irrigated water. We will describe the OAR, define roles of microorganisms and soil organic matter (SOM) in soil health, outline potential soil health indicators and common methodology, and discuss the importance of soil health assessments and management challenges facing the OAR. Information on this arid to semiarid region will aid in future soil health assessments in regions facing similar challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to describe the interactions between soil physico-chemical parameters, plant growth, and soil microbial diversity under different fertilisation regimes in apple orchards affected by replant disease. The hypothesis was that fertiliser type and application, as well as tillage technique, could exert a shift in the soil chemical and biological parameters linked to soil sickness. Two apple orchards affected by ARD and located at different sites in South Tyrol, Italy, were selected as representatives of perennial crops affected by replant disease. The effects of application of six different amendments to the soil, at both sites, were investigated. Physico-chemical and ecophysiological properties, along with soil microbial communities (evaluated with PCR-Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and high throughput sequencing of the V1-V3 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene) were analysed. High-throughput sequencing resulted in 1,590,042 sequence reads, classified in 326,371 operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Considering a threshold of 1% relative abundance of OTUs for each sample, 39 bacterial phyla and 197 genera were detected. The phyla Proteobacteria , Actinobacteria , Acidobacteria and Bacteroidetes comprised between 24% and 71% of all sequences. Plant growth parameters were correlated with physico-chemical and ecophysiological parameters as well as with bacterial genus abundances. Findings revealed that in this study, Rhodanobacter , Blastocatella , Arenimonas , Variovorax , Ferruginobacter , Demequina and Schlesneria were the genera most affected by treatment type in terms of abundance. Furthermore, Ferruginobacter , Demequina and Schlesneria , genera not commonly described as involved in biocontrol, were strongly correlated with plant growth by a positive association. Treatments were found to exert contradictory effects on the bacterial communities and on the ecophysiological parameters at the different sites. These findings indicate not only a high complexity in the interaction between environmental and biological entities, but also that changes in environmental parameters result in changes in the interactions within bacterial communities. High-throughput sequencing confirmed the hypothesis that soil bacterial communities at the two sites were diverse and differed significantly, while they did not differ significantly according to treatment type. The dominant genera detected were not directly related to the treatment or to the growth of apple plants, suggesting that minor populations and unclassified sequences could be involved in replant disease. High-throughput sequencing can be proposed as a suitable method to deeply describe the soil microbiota found in ARD soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding spatial variability of soil properties is essential to support land management decisions. However, despite the growing worldwide emphasis on integrated landscape management, soil variations resulting from land use changes have rarely been documented. The study used the land health surveillance concept in combination with simple geostatistical approaches to describe key soil properties among land use types and characterize their spatial variability in the highlands of Cameroon. A total of 320 soil samples were collected in two sites with contrasting land uses (agricultural and pasture) and were analyzed for granulometric fraction, soil organic carbon (SOC), nitrogen (N), soil reaction (pH), phosphorous (P), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al) and zinc (Zn). The spatial correlations between the soil properties revealed the factors responsible for the observed differences and showed that wide ranges were obtained in agricultural site as opposed to pasture. SOC and N decreased in the order of forest > grassland > fallow > croplands > pasture due to inherent soil properties, anthropogenic activities, land cover/land use and topographic factors. Kriged maps provided detailed visualization of soil properties at landscape scale, and helped to identify critical areas for targeted land management interventions to improve land quality. The spatial distribution of selected soil properties showed a well-defined pattern of higher concentrations in the lowlands and valleys and areas with permanent vegetation cover in both sites. These results are useful for improving the efficient use of inputs such fertilizers. Context-specific land management based on spatial variability of soil properties is highly recommended and more research is required to generalize our knowledge about spatial variability of soil health indicators and the casual factors in the highlands of Cameroon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Long-term manure application improves soil health. • Soil organic matter reached an equilibrium for manure management. • Soil health indicators are functionally interrelated. • Soil organic carbon can be used as a proxy for soil total nitrogen. • Autoclaved citrate extractable protein can be a critical indicator. Soil health lies at the core of a sustainable food production system. A comprehensive evaluation of different agronomic practices and their effect on soil health is essential to determine the best practices that support soil ecosystem services. However, it may take years or decades to observe measurable changes in soil health under varying management practices. The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of long-term (>77 years) manure and inorganic nitrogen (N) fertilizer on soil health and determine the interrelationship among the measured soil bio-physicochemical indicators. The study also aims to understand the sustainability of the monocropping maize production system under long-term manure and inorganic N fertilizer management. The experiment site is the historic Knorr–Holden Plot, established in 1910 and continued till today. Over the years, the treatments were constant, with manure as the main factor and N rates as the sub-plot factor. Aligning with advancements in agronomic management, the rates of fertilizer and manure have been revised from time to time. Analysis of soil health indicators showed a significant effect of manure on different labile carbon (C) & N fractions, soil enzymes, and soil organic matter (SOM). Manure treatment improved C stabilization and reached a C equilibrium for management. Water holding capacity was significantly improved at wilting point and field capacity for manure treatment. Nitrogen treatments only affected soil pH, cationic exchange capacity (CEC), and phosphorus. Analysis of the interrelationship among soil health indicators showed SOM was determinative for C & N fractions and CEC. Soil organic carbon can be used as a proxy for soil total N (R2 = 0.98). Water extractable fractions of C and N were interrelated and can be used as determinative factors for each other. The results inform that a sustainable monocropping system can be maintained using long-term manure application, where soil health and organic carbon improve over time. The results also indicate that soil health measurement can be minimized to a few key indicators based on the functional interrelationship, which can broaden the adoption of soil health monitoring and measurement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, grazing lands represent a major carbon (C) sink. However, improper use of these ecosystems can degrade their soils and their C storage capacity. Specifically, prolonged high stocking rates in livestock production can result in significantly less soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil fertility in grazing lands. This underlines the need to assess key soil health indicators to determine the ecological efficacy of grazing management. The objective of this study was to identify the impacts of alternative grazing management practices, including heavy continuous (HC), light continuous (LC), and adaptive multi-paddock (AMP) grazing, on SOC and soil health indicators at the ranch and watershed scales in the Lower Prairie Dog Town Fork Red River Watershed in Northwest Texas. The stocking rate was the same under AMP and HC grazing, and it was reduced by half under LC grazing. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool-Carbon (SWAT-C) model was modified and used to conduct this assessment over a 40 year period (1979–2018), after a 900-year spin-up simulation (800 years under natural condition and 100 years under the HC grazing) to initiate the SOC pool. The simulated SOC was validated using observed data from several sampling locations. The study results indicated that when grazing management at the study ranch was changed from the current AMP grazing to hypothetical HC grazing, simulated average annual SOC decreased from 84 to 81.8 Mg/ha (a 2.6% decline). At the watershed-scale, when the grazing management was changed from the baseline HC grazing to AMP grazing, the simulated average annual SOC increased from 35.6 to 38.3 Mg/ha (a 7.5% increase). The net primary productivity (NPP), evapotranspiration (ET), biomass C, and soil nitrogen (N) increased, while C losses from runoff, and sediment loads decreased under AMP grazing. These results indicate that compared to HC, AMP grazing performed better with respect to SOC increase, and improvement of soil ecosystem and hydrological functions at both the ranch and watershed scales in the study watershed. Our findings suggest the need to shift from continuous to AMP grazing in order to improve soil health at multiple spatial scales. The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. [Display omitted] • SWAT-C model was modified to simulate soil health indicators in the top 5 cm soil profile. • Impacts of heavy continuous (HC), light continuous (LC) and adaptive multi-paddock (AMP) grazing were assessed. • Grazing impacts on soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil health indicators were evaluated at the ranch and watershed scales. • Simulated SOC increased by 2.7–7.5% when grazing management was changed from HC to AMP grazing. • AMP grazing also increased net primary productivity, soil C and N, and reduced C losses in runoff and sediment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]