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Observing deviant behaviour can lead to 'norm erosion', where a norm is no longer seen as relevant and compliance with it is reduced. Previous research argues that social confrontations can mitigate norm erosion. However, this work has not considered the impact of bystanders to confrontations, who might influence the outcome by supporting—or failing to support—the person confronting a social rule breaker. We examine the effect of bystanders' reactions on preventing norm erosion across three experimental studies. We examined how supportive and non‐supportive bystander reactions to a confronter impacted the perceived strength of a prosocial norm among participants and their behavioural intentions. We find that when bystanders explicitly supported the confronter against the rule breaker, the norm was perceived as stronger—and sometimes, compliance intentions were higher—than when bystanders did not respond to the confronter. A mini meta‐analysis across the three studies reveals that the effect of bystander support on perceived norm strength is large and robust. Our work demonstrates that for the prevention of norm erosion, confrontations benefit greatly from being explicitly supported by bystanders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this essay, we set forth the theory of communicative (dis)enfranchisement (TCD). The TCD is useful for exploring the ramifications of the hegemonic ideologies which constrain and afford our everyday lives, and which are constructed and reflected in disenfranchising talk (DT). The TCD also asks what communication mechanisms work to reify and resist these hegemonic ideologies. We first introduce the warrant for this theorizing, then overview the assumptions of critical postmodernism and propositions of the TCD. We offer guidance for using the TCD via example research questions, suitable contexts, methodological tools, and conclusions researchers can potentially render. We offer criteria for evaluating the TCD regarding its consistency with critical postmodernism, utility as a heuristic framework, and capacity for claims-making. We respond to potential critiques of the TCD by distinguishing the TCD from six related bodies of communication theorizing, and by addressing the purported opaqueness of critical theorizing. Finally, we offer an example analysis to illustrate the TCD in research practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Social confrontation is a part of social reality and many actions in society are formed based on it. Louis Coser is one of the thinkers who investigated confrontation and its function in the context of society and unlike other social thinkers, he considers the concept of confrontation to have two positive and negative functions. According to him, the concept of power and the clash of different ideologies in a confrontational situation is an issue that can be the cause of confrontation, and the set of common goals can be a factor in connecting people and groups. Based on the theory of Cozer's contrast, the present descriptive-analytical research examines the ode "Khafqa Al-Zari" by Ghazi Zeiba, a contemporary Jordanian poet. The purpose of this article is to investigate the representation of confrontation and its role in the formation of social relations and ideology and the dominant discourse in the poet's poems. The results obtained from the present research show that the poet has drawn various social confrontations in his poetry: the confrontation between intellectuals and other groups of people and politicians, or the confrontation between the group and the Arab self with the foreign other. Calling for participation and incompatibility and struggle and emphasis on cultural ideas and common values is the poet's solution for the integration and realization of intra-group or national solidarity against the alien other. By drawing a confrontational situation between himself and the occupying other, the poet considers it important to have a dominant discourse that can be a sign of confrontation and believes that this discourse leads to the ability and production of power in confronting Israel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the article the necessity of working out a new morality, and it will become the basis of civil consolidations the face of the increasing dangers and threats for human urban civilization. The article reveals the failure to use to justify the morality antihumanisms, ideas existencealisms, pragmatisms, liberalisms in its extremely individualistic form libertarianisms.

The supposed new World Order based on U.S. hegemony lasted very few years and at the beginning of the new century, no order existed. The so called multilateralism vanished into the turmoil of a world without international scenario. The confusion spread over all aspects of society with a feeling of helpless. Globalism has not made poorness disappear, and economic crisis with its tragic human consequences have not been erased from the capitalist system. Societies are lost among a desert of contradictories tendencies under irreal promises. If a solution is not found in short period of time, putting an end to poverty, dissatisfaction, frustration and the sensation that the future will be worse than the present, human beings will have no solution but revolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large-scale social unrest and protests of the citizens of the Republic of Belarus have been taking place in the country since the beginning of August 2020. Protesters accuse authorities of falsifying the results of the August 9th presidential elections. They demanded that dictator Lukashenko leave power, that another free and fair election be held, and that political prisoners be released from prison. They also demanded that those guilty of violence against peaceful protesters be brought to justice. It has become clear that during all this time, the pro-Western opposition has not been able to make significant progress and the opposition will not be allowed to take power in Minsk. President Lukashenko has resumed friendship with the Kremlin and called on Moscow's support to stay in power, indicating that resolving the internal political crisis in Belarus will now be a process controlled exclusively by Moscow. Russia will, at the same time, reject any western interference. The support of the Belarusian president from the Kremlin will be made according to a scenario mounted in Moscow and will be done mainly in order not to allow the derailment of the Belarusian state on any western trajectory. And to finally move to a comprehensive integration of the Republic of Belarus into the Russian space, also following a Russian scenario. Of course, all these gestures of Moscow will involve costs that are difficult to assess, but which most likely the people of Belarus and Lukashennko will have to pay. At the close of this analytical material, however, it is difficult to make predictions about the next stages of escalation of the internal conflict, the prospects for normalizing the situation and the fate of the Belarusian dictator. Probably even for the most knowledgeable connoisseurs of the Belarusian space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intergenerational fitness effects on offspring due to the early life of the parent are well studied from the standpoint of the maternal environment, but intergenerational effects owing to the paternal early life environment are often overlooked. Nonetheless, recent laboratory studies in mammals and ecologically relevant studies in invertebrates predict that paternal effects can have a major impact on the offspring's phenotype. These nongenetic, environment‐dependent paternal effects provide a mechanism for fathers to transmit environmental information to their offspring and could allow rapid adaptation. We used the bank vole Myodes glareolus, a wild rodent species with no paternal care, to test the hypothesis that a high population density environment in the early life of fathers can affect traits associated with offspring fitness. We show that the protein content in the diet and/or social environment experienced during the father's early life (prenatal and weaning) influence the phenotype and survival of his offspring and may indicate adaptation to density‐dependent costs. Furthermore, we show that experiencing multiple environmental factors during the paternal early life can lead to a different outcome on the offspring phenotype than stimulated by experience of a single environmental factor, highlighting the need to study developmental experiences in tandem rather than independent of each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-invasive measurements of glucocorticoid (GC) concentrations, including cortisol and corticosterone, serve as reliable indicators of adrenocortical activities and physiological stress loads in a variety of species. As an alternative to invasive analyses based on plasma, GC concentrations in saliva still represent single-point-of-time measurements, suitable for studying short-term or acute stress responses, whereas fecal GC metabolites (FGMs) reflect overall stress loads and stress responses after a species-specific time frame in the long-term. In our study species, the domestic guinea pig, GC measurements are commonly used to indicate stress responses to different environmental conditions, but the biological relevance of non-invasive measurements is widely unknown. We therefore established an experimental protocol based on the animals’ natural stress responses to different environmental conditions and compared GC levels in plasma, saliva, and fecal samples during non-stressful social isolations and stressful two-hour social confrontations with unfamiliar individuals. Plasma and saliva cortisol concentrations were significantly increased directly after the social confrontations, and plasma and saliva cortisol levels were strongly correlated. This demonstrates a high biological relevance of GC measurements in saliva. FGM levels measured 20 h afterwards, representing the reported mean gut passage time based on physiological validations, revealed that the overall stress load was not affected by the confrontations, but also no relations to plasma cortisol levels were detected. We therefore measured FGMs in two-hour intervals for 24 h after another social confrontation and detected significantly increased levels after four to twelve hours, reaching peak concentrations already after six hours. Our findings confirm that non-invasive GC measurements in guinea pigs are highly biologically relevant in indicating physiological stress responses compared to circulating levels in plasma in the short- and long-term. Our approach also underlines the importance of detailed investigations on how to use and interpret non-invasive measurements, including the determination of appropriate time points for sample collections.

Abstract: Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a major pro-inflammatory cytokine, which promotes cell-mediated immunity and TH1 differentiation. In vitro studies indicated suppression of IL-12 production by several stress-related factors, but no effects of behavioral stress were shown on plasma IL-12 levels. Therefore, in the current study we (i) examined the in vivo effects of various behavioral and pharmacological stress paradigms on baseline plasma IL-12 levels; (ii) compared these in vivo findings to those obtained following in vitro stimulation of leukocytes from the same rats; and (iii) assessed potential sexual dimorphism in these outcomes. The findings indicated that plasma IL-12 levels were significantly reduced by social confrontation, wet-cage exposure, surgery, and the administration of corticosterone, epinephrine, or prostaglandin-E2. Notably, most in vivo impacts on plasma levels were not evident when assessed in vitro. The IL-12-reducing effects of wet-cage exposure, and of corticosterone and epinephrine administration, were significantly greater in males than in females, although females exhibited greater total corticosterone levels following stress. The duration of acute stressors predicted the degree of IL-12 reduction, but more prolonged stressors did not. Furthermore, seven days of alternating behavioral stressors reduced plasma IL-12 levels more than 14 days. These findings suggest animals’ behavioral habituation to stress conditions, or a specific immune mechanism restricting the duration of IL-12 reduction. Overall, our findings indicate a generic and robust stress-induced reduction in plasma IL-12 levels, and suggest epinephrine, corticosterone, and prostaglandin-E2, as potential mediators that should be scrutinized in vivo in the context of natural physiological stress responses. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Fraudulent activity is often first discovered by employees. Gaining an understanding of how meeting with the transgressor to discuss the apparent fraud ("social confrontation") influences individuals' likelihood of reporting fraud to internal recipients is particularly important for various stakeholders interested in the early reporting of fraud. Using an experimental approach, this study provides evidence on the extent to which unsuccessful social confrontation with one's supervisor regarding apparent fraud influences reporting intentions to two different, but plausible, internal report recipients: the supervisor's supervisor and an internal auditor. To broaden the generalizability of the findings, the study includes two different fraudulent acts. In the study, participants assume the role of an employee discovering a fraudulent act. The study manipulates two between-participants variables: (1) the presence or absence of unsuccessful social confrontation with the transgressor to discuss the apparent fraud and (2) the type of fraudulent act that apparently occurred (misappropriation of assets or fraudulent financial reporting). The results of the study were consistent with and extend power-related theories of whistleblowing. We find that under unsuccessful social confrontation, one's reporting intentions to the supervisor's supervisor are stronger than to an internal auditor. However, reporting intentions to the supervisor's supervisor are not stronger than to an internal auditor when social confrontation did not occur. The type of fraudulent act did not influence the relation between social confrontation and reporting intentions. Our findings suggest that employees experiencing unsuccessful social confrontation may be more likely to seek out powerful internal report recipients. Thus, audit committees and others with an interest in fostering internal fraud reporting may find it helpful to include social confrontation strategies as part of a broader discussion with employees of responses to the discovery of fraud and make employees fully aware of how to report apparent fraud to senior internal report recipients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines how having a communal orientation toward relationships and feeling that one has a legitimate right to confront another are related to the strategies people use when confronting an individual to alter unhealthy behaviors. Among a sample of undergraduates, communal orientation was positively related to legitimacy. Communal orientation was also positively related to enacting active, direct, and supportive strategies. Evidence that legitimacy partially mediated the relation between communal orientation and active, direct strategies was also found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When upset with a relational partner, intimates often enact the silent treatment, although it can harm their relationships. This study investigates the degree to which relational commitment predicts a person's self-reported use of the silent treatment. Undergraduate daters indicated their relational commitment, their use of the silent treatment when upset with their partner, and what they do if the partner asks if they are upset. Relational commitment was negatively related to using the silent treatment and stonewalling when the partner asked if there was a problem. Relational commitment was only positively related to admitting being upset when the partner asked if there was a problem. Study limitations and future research implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The European rabbit, both in its wild and domesticated forms, has been a pioneer species in the study of mammalian chemical communication, and illustrates well the difficulty of understanding the functional significance of these often complex signals. Here we investigate the performance of one of the rabbit''s most conspicuous chemical signaling behaviors, chin marking (chinning), and the hypothesis that this expresses social dominance. In tests of 21 chinchilla-strain sexually mature males we predicted 1) that animals would show marked and stable individual differences in the frequency of chinning, 2) that these differences would correlate with behaviors associated with dominance such as intrasexual mounting, and 3) that individual differences in the frequency of chinning and dominance-related behaviors would correlate with individual differences in a commonly used physiological indicator of dominance, concentration of serum testosterone. Supporting these predictions and consistent with previous reports, animals showed large and stable individual differences in the frequency of chinning which correlated with the behavioral indicators of dominance and less strongly, with serum testosterone. As our animals had been kept in single cages and without direct contact with other males since weaning, these findings raise the question as to how and when during development such differences among individuals arise. We are currently investigating the possible relation between pups'' intrauterine position, postnatal competition among littermates for milk and thermally advantageous positions in the litter huddle, and later differences in indicators of dominance such as those reported here. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Peers can influence each other's health lifestyle choices. However, limited research informs as to the factors that determine whether and how peers confront one another over their poor health lifestyle choices. We used Newell and Stutman's model of social confrontation as a theoretical framework to predict the manner in which college students will confront each other about their problematic drinking. We focused on the degree to which the legitimacy of discussing the topic and relational intimacy with the target influence decisions about the manner in which the confrontation takes place. Believing that health issues are an individual choice is negatively related to believing one is legitimate when confronting another individual. As predicted, legitimacy and intimacy interact to predict some elements of meta-goals and message characteristics. Individuals who were close, and felt that they were legitimate in confronting the other were more likely to have efficient confrontations and express concern. Implications for future research and designing peer interventions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The current research studied the behavior adopted in the elevated plus maze (EPM) of rats previously subjected to a social defeat using the resident-intruder paradigm. One day after defeat, intruder animals exhibited an anxiogenic-like behavior in the EPM. In addition, we also evaluated the role of the corticosteroid receptor system (minerlocorticoid – MR – and glucocorticoid – GR – receptors) from the lateral septum (LS) on the anxiety generated by social defeat. The LS is an area of the aversive circuitry that is preferentially activated in passive defensive postures, and participates – together with other brain areas – in the modulation of aversive states. Intruder animals were infused into the LS with the MR or GR antagonist (ZK 91587 and RU 38486, respectively) and then submitted to social stress. All rats were tested in the EPM 1 day later. Only the administration of the GR antagonist, but not the MR antagonist, into the LS normalized the anxiogenic response induced by defeat. Furthermore, we examined whether a single injection of corticosterone (CS) could induce the same influence on the behavior in the EPM as that observed after social defeat. Moreover, we explored the effect of local infusions of MR or GR antagonists into the LS on the behavior exhibited by CS-treated rats in a subsequent EPM exposure. CS administration also exerted an increased anxiogenic-like behavior, which was normalized only by the local infusion of the GR antagonist. Based on these findings, we suggest that CS secreted by emotionally relevant stimuli acting via GR in LS plays an important role in the modulation of the emotional sequelae induced by social defeat. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]