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Owing to the increasing intensity and frequency of wildfires in the western United States, the removal of woody debris (downed dead wood and snags) from fire‐prone landscapes is being evaluated for wildfire mitigation. Consequently, the study of the ecological value of coarse woody debris to sustain dependent species has become of foremost importance. From 2004–2009, we used a before‐after control‐impact (BACI) study design to assess the effects of downed wood removal on a population of big‐eared woodrats (Neotoma macrotis) in an oak woodland (Quercus spp.) in coastal‐central California, USA. Using Pollock's robust design mark‐recapture analyses (with 12 primary capture occasions represented by trapping each spring and fall, and secondary occasions composed of 3 trap nights), we estimated survival and emigration rates. Further, applying mixed‐effects models, we evaluated the effects of 7 habitat attributes on woodrat abundance and reproduction. Following the experimental removal of downed wood from the 11 randomly selected treatment plots, woodrat survival was higher (P = 0.013), and emigration was lower (P = 0.007) among 11 control plots on which downed wood was retained. Woodrat abundance within plots was best predicted by stem density, demonstrating positive demographic associations with habitat complexity. Plot‐level reproductive success (i.e., the presence of juveniles within a plot during spring) was more likely with increasing snag density. These findings indicate that snags and downed dead wood are key components of high‐quality habitat for big‐eared woodrats. Management of woody debris to mitigate wildfire risk should consider the ecological value of this habitat attribute for big‐eared woodrats and other dependent species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Birds are under selective pressure to orient their nests in a direction that reduces the impact of climatic extremes and the risk of the nest being detected by predators. Woodpeckers (Picidae), despite raising young in tree cavities that are safer from predators, should orient the entrances of their nest cavities in a direction that results in a favorable cavity microclimate. Because Picid nest cavity orientation is not well-studied in the Pacific Northwest of North America, we measured nest cavity orientation of White-headed Dryobates albolarvatus, Hairy D. villosus, and Black-backed Picoides arcticus Woodpeckers, Northern Flicker Colaptes auratus, and Williamson's Sapsucker Sphyrapicus thyroideus within burned and unburned, dry conifer forests of the eastern Cascade Range in Washington, USA (N = 684). Each woodpecker species had a mean angle of nest cavity orientation in a northerly or easterly direction and ranged from 12.3° for the Northern Flicker to 117.6° for the Black-backed Woodpecker. Hairy Woodpeckers, Northern Flickers, and White-headed Woodpeckers showed strong evidence for nonrandom nest cavity orientation, and Northern Flickers showed particularly high dispersion with a multimodal distribution of cavity orientations. Although the mean and variance of cavity orientations did not differ substantially between woodpeckers, cavity orientation differed based on nest tree species. Woodpeckers may orient their nest cavities in an easterly direction so that cavities warm quicker in the morning, to avoid hot afternoon temperatures and prevailing west and north westerly winds, and because the majority of cavities were located in burned forest where shading from canopy cover is reduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The simplification of forest structural complexity, caused by anthropogenic land-use practices, is one of the main threats to understory specialist birds. We examined the association of both single structural attributes and structural complexity, with the density of 4 understory bird species in the Global Biodiversity Hotspot "Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests" of South America. Between 2011 and 2013, we surveyed habitat attributes and conducted bird point counts in 505 plots in Andean temperate ecosystems in Chile. In each habitat plot, we measured understory density, volume of coarse woody debris (CWD), number of snags, diameter at breast height (DBH) of trees, and leaf litter depth. With these attributes, we developed an index of stand structural complexity (ISC). On average, old-growth forests had higher values for understory density, CWD volume, DBH, and litter depth than secondary forests and open fields, and thus greater values of ISC. The density of understory birds was positively correlated with the ISC for the Rhinocryptidae Pteroptochos tarnii, Scelorchilus rubecula, and Scytalopus magellanicus. We also found a positive association between understory density and litter depth, with the density of the Furnariidae Sylviorthorhynchus desmursii. However, this latter species showed a negative association with the density of snags. Our results suggest the utility of using an index of structural complexity, rather than single or even additive habitat attributes, for determining the density of understory specialist birds. We recommend that management plans should promote the retention of habitat attributes that contribute to the structural complexity of temperate forests of South America and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deadwood plays a key role for biodiversity in forests. A significant number of beetles from this group are currently listed as endangered in the Red List. In addition to other management recommendations, there have been recent efforts to enrich stands with dead wood to promote biodiversity. An important parameter for forestry enterprises is the optimization of these interventions. The study investigated the abundance, species richness, gamma diversity, conservation value and biomass of saproxylic beetles in natural forests using window traps. A total of 89 traps were used for saproxylic beetle monitoring, of which 29 were placed on lying logs, 30 on snags and 30 as controls in forest stand space. A total of 35,011 beetles were recorded in 564 species (61 families). Notably, 20,515 of these belong to saproxylic beetles (59%) in 311 species (55%), with 62 classified as Red-List species (20%). In the group of ‘all saproxylic beetles’, the results indicate that α diversity and γ diversity (q ​= ​0) remain consistent across various deadwood types, while β diversity showed significant differences. Significant differences were found in the Red-List species group, where α diversity and γ diversity differed, with higher values observed in snags. Rarefaction based total species richness of site was estimated to be 391 species, including 74 Red-Listed species. Comparing the sample coverage of the studied stand categories showed that all saproxylic species exhibit a pronounced preference for inhabiting areas featuring lying logs. Conversely, Red-List species mainly inhabit snags, with β diversity being more similar to snags and forest stand space. Notably, both the conservation value (weighted average by conservation status) and beetle biomass are significantly highest in snags, whereas stand space shows the lowest values across all measured saproxylic beetle indices. Furthermore, the use of traps set on the poles in forest stand space resulted in an underestimation of the actual stand richness by 20%–25%. Our results support the conclusion that snags are indispensable features in beech forests, playing a key role in promoting high species diversity, especially among Red-List species, and supporting the biomass of saproxylic beetles. Consequently, it becomes crucial to incorporate a higher percentage of standing deadwood in managed forests or actively create equivalent environments by introducing high stumps.

Salvage logging is a controversial tool for post-wildfire management that removes fire-killed trees. We use a generalized randomized experimental design to fulfill two main objectives: (1) quantify the immediate (1-year post-harvest) effects of salvage logging on stand structure, fine and coarse woody fuel loadings; and (2) use pre- and post-empirical field data and the Fire and Fuels Extension to the Forest Vegetation Simulator (Reinhardt and Crookston 2003) to simulate post-wildfire dead woody fuel succession and snag dynamics. We compared the effects on woody fuel loadings of two salvage logging prescriptions: (1) seed tree harvest, thin to 3.4 m2·ha−1; and (2) full salvage of all merchantable timber, relative to unlogged controls. There was substantial block-level variability in the implementation of the treatments and in their immediate effects on fine fuel loading, complicating comparison of the two prescriptions. Overall, salvage logging did reduce snag basal area and, relative to unlogged controls, significantly increased measured fine woody fuel loading (10 and 100 h). Simulated snag fall was rapid, with a mean predicted snag basal area loss of 61% within 10 years. Future long-term monitoring of permanent field plots will supplement model predictions and provide valuable data to inform post-wildfire management decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The multifaceted role of deadwood in forest ecosystems has been widely recognized while it is regarded as an indicator of sustainable forest management. Nevertheless, there are hardly any data on deadwood volume and structure in managed forests in Greece. The study took place in beech forests of the Western and Central part of the Rodopi Mountain Range. The objective was to determine the amount, variability and quality of deadwood and to compare it with data from managed as well as natural forests. Data were collected on 30 randomly distributed circular plots of 0.1 ha. The results showed that the average deadwood amount (13.46 m3 ha−1) was much lower compared to that recorded in other European forests and they highlighted the absence of large dead standing trees due to the management regime. The deadwood quality showed great variation in stages of decay.

Dead wood, including coarse woody debris, CWD, and fine woody debris, FWD, plays a substantial role in forest ecosystem functioning. However, the amount and dynamics of dead wood in the forests of Northern Eurasia are poorly understood. The aim of this study was to develop a spatially distributed modelling system (limited to the territories of the former Soviet Union) to assess the amount and structure of dead wood by its components (including snags, logs, stumps, and the dry branches of living trees) based on the most comprehensive database of field measurements to date. The system is intended to be used to assess the dead wood volume and the amount of dead wood in carbon units as part of the carbon budget calculation of forests at different scales. It is presented using multi-dimensional regression equations of dead wood expansion factors (DWEF)—the ratio of the dead wood component volume to the growing stock volume of the stands. The system can be also used for the accounting of dead wood stock and its dynamics in national greenhouse gas inventories and UNFCCC reporting. The system's accuracy is satisfactory for the average level of disturbance regimes but it may require corrections for regions with accelerated disturbance regimes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In tropical forests, especially in the Southeast Asia, there are only fragmentary estimates of coarse woody debris (CWD) pools and dynamics. Our study examines the volume and structural diversity of CWD in forests not affected by commercial felling in the territories of the Bidoup Núi Bà and Bù Gia M p National Parks of the Republic of Vietnam. In the lowland Dipterocarp forests of Bù Gia M p National Park, the average volume of CWD was almost two times lower than the average CWD stock in the mixed montane forests of Bidoup Núi Bà national park: 44 m3 ha–1 versus 78 m3 ha–1. The mass of CWD depended linearly on its volume and averaged 24 t ha–1. The projective cover of CWD averaged 269 m2 ha–1. Snags prevailed among the substrate categories (position types), accounting for 42 and 31% in the Bidoup Núi Bà and Bù Gia M p forests, respectively. The proportion of large branches in the montane forests of Bidoup Núi Bà National Park was 8%, while in the lowland forests of Bù Gia M p it reached 33% of the CWD volume. Very high termite activity was noted in the Bù Gia M p National Park—in 73% of the studied CWD pieces. The percentage of thermite tunnels partially filled with soil was, on average, 32% of the CWD volume. The high projective cover of CWD with various types of mass loss: consumption by invertebrates, white- and brown-rot decay suggests a significant role of CWD in the soil-forming processes. The similarities were revealed in the volume and size of CWD in the studied monsoon tropical forests of South Vietnam and in the primeval European boreal Norway spruce forests with fine-scale gap dynamics. The predominance of snags among the CWD categories and the nearly bell-shaped distribution of the CWD volume by decay classes complement the similarity of the CWD pool in tropical lowland and montane mixed forests with that in uneven-aged spruce boreal forests. However, a high proportion of branches in the structure of CWD, especially in lowland deciduous mixed forests distinguishes the CWD in tropical forests from the CWD in boreal and temperate forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Falling trees and tree fragments are one of the top five causes of fatalities for wildland fire responders. In six out of ten recent years, at least one fatality from a tree strike has occurred while a fire responder was on duty, and others were injured. We used TreeMap, a national map of forest characteristics, including individual tree height, diameter, and status (live or dead), to generate a map of snag hazard for forested areas of the continental U.S. at 30 × 30 m resolution. Snag hazard was classified into categories of low, moderate, high, or extreme based on snag density and height. Within-class accuracy was as high at 86%, suggesting that the Snag Hazard map can help wildland fire managers identify and avoid exposing fire responders to hazardous conditions. Accuracy was higher outside recently disturbed areas (88%) than inside (79%), perhaps reflecting strong spatial patterns and heterogeneity of mortality within disturbed areas. The Snag Hazard map is a frequently requested product from the Forest Service'sRisk Management Assistance Group. The goal of RMA is to provide analytics to decision makers and fire leadership to facilitate risk-informed decision-making to improve safety, effectiveness, and outcomes. We present a case study showing how the Snag Hazard 2016 map was used to inform fire responders during an active wildfire incident in California during the 2020 fire season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Windthrow is a common occurrence in boreal forests, affecting wood supply and presenting regeneration challenges for forest managers. Salvage harvesting is often conducted afterwards to extract valuable wood and improve access for forest renewal activities. Research efforts, however, are generally limited to the effects of windthrow and salvage harvesting in the first few years following disturbance. In 2006, a catastrophic wind event occurred in a trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) forest in northeastern Ontario. A field study was established with a range of silvicultural treatments from leaving after windthrow (W) to forest renewal treatments including windrow site preparation, planting, and herbicide release (WSPR). While the results of first 5-year assessment have been reported, the objective of the current study was to reassess treatment effects at 15 years post-disturbance, a stage of stand development that is more indicative of future forest conditions. Compared to the results of the earlier assessment, the 15-year assessment indicated that standing dead wood (snags) declined, whereas coarse downed wood did not change substantially over time. Post-disturbance salvage harvesting improved aspen regeneration in terms of density, stocking, and growth, but substantially reduced the proportion of conifers relative to windthrow only. Thus, salvage harvesting helped to sustain aspen composition, compared to other treatment options that increased proportions of pine and spruce trees from W to windthrow and salvage harvesting combined with windrow site preparation and planting (WSP), and from WSP to WSPR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Cervicogenic headache (CGH) is a common condition that results in significant disability. To treat this dysfunction, Mulligan described sustained natural apophyseal glides (SNAGs) as a manual therapy approach. However, only inconclusive short-term evidence exists for treating CGH with SNAGs. OBJECTIVE: The present study aims to investigate the effect of SNAGs in the treatment of CGH. METHODS: Fourty female patients ranging from 20 to 40 years with CGH were randomly assigned to two groups: 20 in a treatment group and 20 in a control group. SNAGs were applied to the treatment group while the control group received placebo treatment. Both groups received their respective treatment for 20 minutes, alternately three times per week, for a total of 12 times in four weeks. The outcome measures were the Neck Disability Index (NDI) and the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Participants were assessed at baseline and at the end of each week. The data was analyzed using SPSS version 20. Independent t-testing was used to reveal changes between groups. One-way ANOVA was used to determine changes within groups. The level of significance was P < 0.05. RESULTS: Twenty participants (100%) in the treatment group and 17 (85%) in the control group had a history of headache aggravation with active movements or passive head positioning. There was no significant difference at baseline (p > 0.05), indicating that both groups were homogeneous at the time of recruitment. The p value (p < 0.05) showed a significant difference in pain and level of disability at three and four weeks (p < 0.05) in patients treated with SNAGs. However, the cervical range of motion (ROM) showed a statistically significant improvement in flexion and extension in the treatment group (p < 0.05) while there was no significant improvement in side flexion and rotation ROM in both groups (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: This study found that SNAGs were effective in reducing pain and neck disability and improved ROM in females with CGH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of coarse woody debris (CWD) in the global carbon (C) cycle is growing under increasing tree mortality driven by climate variability and disturbances. Quantifying C in CWD critically depends on accurate estimates of CWD density and C concentration in CWD. This study considered the main decomposition pathways (the proportions of CWD decomposed by fungi vs. invertebrates; fungal decay types) and the relationships between decay class, wood density, moisture, and C content of CWD in old‐growth mixed monsoon montane tropical forests in Vietnam based on the inventory of 359 CWD pieces. The bulk density of wood of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th decay classes averaged 0.56, 0.49, 0.37, 0.28, and 0.15 g cm−3, respectively. The density reduction across decay classes did not significantly differ for snags, stumps, branches, leaning, and lying logs. Wood density was negatively related to wood moisture. The wood mass loss averaged 0%, 20%, 37%, 54%, and 74% in the CWD of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th decay classes, respectively. Signs of invertebrate activity were recorded on 3% of CWD pieces. Among CWD samples with identifiable decay type, 88% were decomposed by white‐rot, 8% were decomposed as brown‐rot, and 4% of pieces contained both white‐ and brown‐rot patches. The mean C concentration in wood was 46.5%. It did not change with decay class. Our research provides an empirical basis for future inventories of CWD carbon stocks in Asian montane tropical mixed forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Airborne lidar is often used to calculate forest metrics about trees, but it may also provide a wealth of information about the space between trees. Forest canopy gaps are defined by the absence of vegetative structure and serve important roles for wildlife, such as facilitating animal movement. Forest canopy gaps also occur around snags, keystone structures that provide important substrates to wildlife species for breeding, roosting and foraging.We wanted to test a method for quantifying canopy gaps around individual snags and live trees, with the working hypothesis that snags would have more gaps surrounding them overall than live trees. We evaluated canopy gaps around individual snags (n = 270) and live trees (n = 2,186) and evaluated correlations between canopy structure and snag occurrence in dense conifer stands of the Idaho Panhandle National Forest, United States. We paired airborne lidar with ground reference data collected at fixed‐radius plots (n = 53) to evaluate local gap structure. The r package ForestGapR was used to quantify canopy gaps throughout the canopy to determine where the differences were greatest. A canopy space profile was created for each tree by mapping gaps (a) vertically every 2 m in height (2–50 m above‐ground), and (b) horizontally across small (16 m2), medium (36 m2) and large (64 m2) footprint sizes.Our results suggest that this method is robust for quantifying canopy gaps around individual trees. The canopy space profiles were distinctly different for snags and live trees, with more canopy gaps within the area surrounding snags relative to live trees. The greatest differences occurred at mid‐canopy heights (~20 m above‐ground) and at the smallest footprint size (16 m2).These results show potential to improve the understanding of gap dynamics in closed‐canopy conifer forests, and we suggest that snag modelling could be improved by incorporating lidar‐derived canopy gap analyses alongside existing methodologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dead wood, including coarse woody debris, CWD, and fine woody debris, FWD, plays a substantial role in forest ecosystem functioning. However, the amount and dynamics of dead wood in the forests of Northern Eurasia are poorly understood. The aim of this study was to develop a spatially distributed modelling system (limited to the territories of the former Soviet Union) to assess the amount and structure of dead wood by its components (including snags, logs, stumps, and the dry branches of living trees) based on the most comprehensive database of field measurements to date. The system is intended to be used to assess the dead wood volume and the amount of dead wood in carbon units as part of the carbon budget calculation of forests at different scales. It is presented using multi-dimensional regression equations of dead wood expansion factors (DWEF)—the ratio of the dead wood component volume to the growing stock volume of the stands. The system can be also used for the accounting of dead wood stock and its dynamics in national greenhouse gas inventories and UNFCCC reporting. The system’s accuracy is satisfactory for the average level of disturbance regimes but it may require corrections for regions with accelerated disturbance regimes.

Background: Neck pain is the second largest cause of disability worldwide. The chronic neck pain prevalence is 14% which is somewhat higher in females as compared to males. In India, the reported prevalence is 6%. Therapeutically, neck pain is managed by physiotherapists using rest, stretching and strengthening exercises, educating patient, and intense proprioception and positional exercises. Aim: We aimed to determine the evidences for the efficacy of sustained natural apophyseal glides (SNAG s) in the management of mechanical neck pain. Methods: One hundred patients (age group: 25–45 years) who were diagnosed with neck pain, with onset >1–3 months (chronic), were randomly assigned to Group A receiving conventional physiotherapy plus SNAGs and Group B receiving conventional physiotherapy plus ultrasound (US). Treatment was given for three times a week for the period of 2 weeks, once a day for 6 sessions. Before treatment and after 2 weeks of treatment, pain, range of motion (ROM), and neck disability were assessed on Visual Analog Scale (VAS), goniometer, and Neck Disability Index (NDI), respectively. This study was conducted in Raj Nursing and Paramedical College, Gorakhpur, ClinicalTrials.gov registration number: NCT04617288. Results: Patients in Group A that received conventional physiotherapy plus SNAGs showed greater improvement in pain and ROM compared with the conventional physiotherapy plus US group on the 2nd week compared with pretreatment (P < 0.050). Conclusion: The result of the study suggests that both the SNAG and US groups improve the symptoms of neck pain. The US group improved the pain symptoms but was too small to reach satisfactory outcome for patients. Based on these results, conventional physiotherapy plus SNAGs should be the treatment of choice for neck pain rather than conventional physiotherapy plus US. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Falling trees and tree fragments are one of the top five causes of fatalities for wildland fire responders. In six out of ten recent years, at least one fatality from a tree strike has occurred while a fire responder was on duty, and others were injured. We used TreeMap, a national map of forest characteristics, including individual tree height, diameter, and status (live or dead), to generate a map of snag hazard for forested areas of the continental U.S. at 30 × 30 m resolution. Snag hazard was classified into categories of low, moderate, high, or extreme based on snag density and height. Within-class accuracy was as high at 86%, suggesting that the Snag Hazard map can help wildland fire managers identify and avoid exposing fire responders to hazardous conditions. Accuracy was higher outside recently disturbed areas (88%) than inside (79%), perhaps reflecting strong spatial patterns and heterogeneity of mortality within disturbed areas. The Snag Hazard map is a frequently requested product from the Forest Service’sRisk Management Assistance Group. The goal of RMA is to provide analytics to decision makers and fire leadership to facilitate risk-informed decision-making to improve safety, effectiveness, and outcomes. We present a case study showing how the Snag Hazard 2016 map was used to inform fire responders during an active wildfire incident in California during the 2020 fire season.

Windthrow is a common occurrence in boreal forests, affecting wood supply and presenting regeneration challenges for forest managers. Salvage harvesting is often conducted afterwards to extract valuable wood and improve access for forest renewal activities. Research efforts, however, are generally limited to the effects of windthrow and salvage harvesting in the first few years following disturbance. In 2006, a catastrophic wind event occurred in a trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) forest in northeastern Ontario. A field study was established with a range of silvicultural treatments from leaving after windthrow (W) to forest renewal treatments including windrow site preparation, planting, and herbicide release (WSPR). While the results of first 5-year assessment have been reported, the objective of the current study was to reassess treatment effects at 15 years post-disturbance, a stage of stand development that is more indicative of future forest conditions. Compared to the results of the earlier assessment, the 15-year assessment indicated that standing dead wood (snags) declined, whereas coarse downed wood did not change substantially over time. Post-disturbance salvage harvesting improved aspen regeneration in terms of density, stocking, and growth, but substantially reduced the proportion of conifers relative to windthrow only. Thus, salvage harvesting helped to sustain aspen composition, compared to other treatment options that increased proportions of pine and spruce trees from W to windthrow and salvage harvesting combined with windrow site preparation and planting (WSP), and from WSP to WSPR.

Cavity/crevice tree-roosting bats in North America face an uncertain future with many factors impacting their populations. To benefit crevice/cavity roosting bat species, forests are often enhanced with the use of tree girdling. In October 2015, 20 maples, 22 oaks, and 18 hickories were girdled using a method with fell cut and herbicide (frilling) or double-girdling with a chainsaw. From 2016–2021, targeted trees were observed and the tree’s decay state was collected. The average time for trees to display suitable roosting characteristics for frilling trees was 3.23 years while it was 4.46 years for double girdling. The average time frilling trees contained suitable roosting characteristics was 3.20 years while it was 1.63 years for double girdling. The frilling method resulted in a quicker kill of trees than double girdling and frilling trees had suitable roosting characteristics for a longer duration. Frilling was effective killing all three types of trees, while the double girdling was less effective, especially on oaks. When grouping species and treatment in analysis, only average decay states between maple frill and oak double girdling and hickory frill and oak double girdling were significantly different. This evaluation demonstrates that roost tree creation relating to tree species and girdling methodology has a temporal component that should be considered when managing for crevice/cavity bat roosts and multiple habitat creation methods should be used in conjunction with snag creation to provide sustainable bat habitat over longer time periods.

Tree cavities are a keystone resource for many wildlife species worldwide. In Andean temperate forests of South America, many species of birds, mammals and reptiles use cavities to achieve their life history requirements. However, information on cavity supply and drivers of cavity production in these forests remains largely undocumented. We examined the patterns of tree‐cavity supply in successional native forests, exploring the potential drivers of cavity occurrence and relative abundances in Andean temperate ecosystems of southern Chile. In 10 forest stands, we established 369 vegetation plots and measured 7951 trees. For each tree, we recorded the species and measured the diameter at breast height (DBH), decay class and number of cavities. While tree density was much higher in secondary than in old‐growth forest stands, the density of nonexcavated cavities was higher in old‐growth than in secondary forests. Cavity occurrence and relative abundances (number of cavities per tree) were higher in large decaying and standing dead trees (i.e. habitat legacies) than in young healthy trees. Importantly, DBH and decay had a stronger influence on the supply of nonexcavated than excavated cavities. Our results highlight the importance of old‐growth forest stands, tree decay processes and habitat legacies for securing a continuous supply of a keystone habitat resource for tree cavity‐using wildlife in a global biodiversity hotspot of South America. Abstract in Spanish is available with online material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents data on tree stands located in a subalpine spruce forest in the Gorce National Park (Western Carpathians, Poland) as well as on the birds inhabiting them in the breeding and nonbreeding seasons. The authors conducted stand measurements on a total of twenty-four sample plots, with eight plots established in each of the three studied forest development stages (mature, break-up, and growing-up) representing successive phases of subalpine forest development. The study area designated for each stage was 30 ha. The development properties of each study area resulted from both biotic and abiotic factors. Tree stands were characterized in terms of the tree layer, saplings, and deadwood. The types of deadwood measured were: standing entire dead trees, snags, stumps, and downed deadwood. In the case of birds, the presented data include species composition and pair density in the breeding season and individual bird density in the nonbreeding season. The authors used these data in a paper [1] examining the relationship between forest structural indicators and bird diversity in the three forest development stages. Other researchers can also utilize these data for the purpose of comparison with other areas representing similar forest communities or for studies on stand dynamics, especially in the face of climate change which may substantially affect those phenomena. Furthermore, the presented data may be useful in studies concerning the abundance and dynamics of bird assemblages and other organisms associated with the subalpine zone as well as in research devoted to the diversity of ecological niches. Such investigations may lay foundations for developing conservation guidelines for the ecosystems in question.

Accumulation of dead woody material is a critical management concern following wildfires, especially given the possibility of subsequent wildfires. Forest structure and fuel accumulation are largely driven by site climatic conditions, so variability in site conditions is important to consider in management beyond the one-size fits all model for post-fire fuel dynamics. Moreover, dead woody material provides important ecological functions for forested ecosystems. Understanding when surface fuels biomass is highest following wildfires and how these dynamics change after repeated fires affords land management agencies opportunities to adjust fuel reduction strategies without removing large quantities of dead trees that are important in these post-fire landscapes for a variety of ecosystem services, including wildlife, water and nutrient retention, and soil stabilization. Here, we examined how surface fuels and standing dead trees change over time, by burn severity, site climate, and with repeated fires at seven different years-since-fire (1–24 years) across 182 sites from ten wildfires in central Idaho. Downed woody fuel loads were higher on moister and cooler sites. Large-diameter woody fuels saw significant increases after about 14 years post-fire while smaller woody fuels had the highest loads at 20 years post-fire. Surface fuel loads varied by burn severity and years since fires, with the highest loadings at longer years since fire and sites burned in stand replacing fire. Litter and duff had not sufficiently accumulated to compensate for continued decomposition, resulting in lower forest floor biomass through 24 years post fire. Density of snags of all sizes generally declined after 7–9 years, but large-diameter snags were still standing 24 years post fire. Repeated fires resulted in >40% reduction in both surface fuels and standing trees compared to once-burned areas at the same years since fire. Burned landscapes can serve a great ecological benefit by providing an infusion of both standing and downed dead woody debris. Additionally, though some sites burned in stand replacing fires exceed recommended surface fuel loadings, these ecological considerations should be weighed against concerns about reburning potential and fire fighter hazards.

Background: Cervicogenic headache is a major problem in many people suffering from upper cervical dysfunction with a great conflict in its physical therapy management. Objective: The aim of the work was to determine the effect of Adding Kinesio Tape To Mulligan's Mobilization in patients with a cervicogenic headache. Patients and methods: Fifty four patients with cervicogenic headache included in the study; from outpatient clinic, Faculty of physical therapy, Cairo University Hospital (Kasr El Ainy), were randomly assigned into two equal groups ; group A (Kinesiotaping and mulligan techniques), Group B (mulligan techniques). Their mean ± SD age, weight, height and BMI were 37.74±5.55 years, 80.62±6.27 kg, 170.11±5.5 cm and 27.48±2.73 kg/m² respectively. The visual analogue scale (VAS) is used for measuring intensity of cervicogenic headache. Frequency and duration of cervicogenic headache are collected from subjective data of patients. Correlations between the examined parameters were also measured. Kinesiotaping application with mulligan SNAGs were companied in group A and mulligan SNAGs done only in group B. Results: There was significant improvement of VAS outcome scores and frequency and duration of cervicogenic headache in Group (A) more than Group (B). Conclusion: It could be concluded that adding kinesio tape to mulligan's mobilization in patients with a cervicogenic headache is found to be an effective in treatment of cervicogenic headache. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study the influence of forest management on the characteristics of snags and tree cavities in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran was investigated. In particular, the effect of two sylvicultural treatments (shelter wood and single-tree selection) was assessed in comparison to protected stands. The abundance, diameter, height, and degree of decay of snag species, and the characteristics of birds excavated and natural cavities (number and height from the ground level) were measured by systematic plots in each stand. The results showed that the abundance, species diversity, and size of snags in both of the sylvicultural treatments were significantly lower than the protected stands. The number of birds excavated and natural cavities on thicker snags with moderate decay was significantly higher than other decay classes. Abundance, species diversity, size of snags, and number of tree cavities in the single-tree selection stands were significantly higher than sheltered-wood stands.

• Girdling treatments were effective in killing Douglas-fir. • Improved effectiveness occurred when girdle width was equal to or greater than the tree diameter. • Most snags persisted up to 17 years after girdling. • Fuel loading and regeneration were not substantially affected by girdling treatments. The prolonged absence of fire in Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana) woodlands and savannas of the Pacific Northwest has resulted in substantial conifer encroachment over the past century. Use of low intensity prescribed burns often lacks sufficient intensity to kill larger encroached trees, requiring alternative approaches. In the Bald Hills region of Redwood National Park, managers have implemented girdling treatments to kill Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) over the past two decades with the objective of recovering remnant oaks and restoring historical woodland area. We surveyed 258 girdled Douglas-fir to examine the effectiveness of girdling treatments to create snags and the impacts of girdling on tree regeneration and fuel recruitment over a 17 year time since girdling chronosequence. Girdling was successful in killing 91% of the treated Douglas-fir independent of the method used (axe or chainsaw). Larger trees with a low girdle width-to-tree diameter ratio tended to survive girdling. Trees with a girdle width-to-tree diameter ratio ≥1 were most effective at killing trees. Snags generated through girdling decayed over time but did not significantly reduce in height over the time period examined. Bird activity was observed on 19% of snags across the chronosequence but 88% of 10 y old snags had signs of bird foraging. Fine woody fuel loading and fuelbed depths were potentially elevated 7 years after treatment but did not persist through the time period examined. Regeneration of Douglas-fir and oaks were highly variable and did not seem to be clearly linked to girdling activity. Our results indicate that girdling is a highly effective treatment to kill Douglas-fir and aid restoration of Oregon oak woodlands with limited negative impacts on surface fuel hazards or regeneration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Woodpeckers nesting substrate abundance may be reduced by urban expansion, negatively affecting their reproduction. Long-term studies in the tropics are rare but valuable to estimate how urban development has affected ecological communities. We present a ten-year comparison on nesting substrate abundance and their use by Melanerpes rubricapillus and M. chrysauchen woodpeckers along an urban gradient in Golfito, Costa Rica; which include three habitats and three substrates (snags, palms, and posts). Conditions remained unchanged in non-urban areas. In semi-urban areas, snag, posts, and nests on them, have decreased. In urban areas, despite snags and posts remaining constant, their use also decreased. In semi-urban and urban areas, palms and palm nests increased. This long term comparison indicates that woodpeckers took advantage of the increased presence of ornamental palms in gardens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • We compared Tree-related microhabitats (TreMs) in the Dinarides and Carpathians. • Density and diversity of TreMs were very high in beech dominated primary forests. • Geographical region was not a primary driver of TreM profile. • Tree species richness, DBH, and snags were the main drivers of TreM profile. • These findings may provide a benchmark for forest management practices. Abstract Tree-related microhabitats (TreMs) are important features for the conservation of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. Although other structural indicators of forest biodiversity have been extensively studied in recent decades, TreMs have often been overlooked, either due to the absence of a consensual definition or a lack of knowledge. Despite the increased number of TreM studies in the last decade, the role of drivers of TreM profile in primary forests and across different geographical regions is still unknown. To evaluate the main drivers of TreM density and diversity, we conducted the first large-scale study of TreMs across European primary forests. We established 146 plots in eight primary forests dominated by European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in the Carpathian and Dinaric mountain ranges. Generalized linear mixed effect models were used to test the effect of local plot characteristics and spatial variability on the density and diversity (alpha, beta, and gamma) of TreMs. Total TreM density and diversity were significantly positively related with tree species richness and the proportion of snags. Root mean square tree diameters were significantly related to alpha and gamma diversity of TreMs. Both regions reached similarly high values of total TreM densities and total TreM densities and diversity were not significantly different between the two regions; however, we observed between the two regions significant differences in the densities of two TreM groups, conks of fungi and epiphytes. The density and diversity of TreMs were very high in beech-dominated mountain primary forests, but their occurrence and diversity was highly variable within the landscapes over relatively short spatial gradients (plot and stand levels). Understanding these profile provides a benchmark for further comparisons, such as with young forest reserves, or for improving forest management practices that promote biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The continuing decline in biodiversity presents a major environmental protection challenge. The conservation of sufficiently extensive and diverse habitats requires an array of coordinated actions, often involving large areas. While a set of conservation objectives have been defined for the Natura 2000 network, no universal methods of accomplishing them have been specified, and so they must be designed by individual Member States. Deadwood volume and the density of large deadwood pieces are widely used for evaluating the quality of forest habitat types designated under the Habitats Directive. In the present study, data from 5557 sample plots were used to evaluate the mean values of the two deadwood indicators as well as the ratio of deadwood volume to living tree volume for each of the 13 habitat types in Poland. In addition, a logistic regression model was constructed to evaluate the effects of terrain, site, and tree stand characteristics as well as protection type on deadwood volume in Natura 2000 areas. Mean deadwood volume varied greatly between habitat types, with the lowest values found for Central European lichen Scots pine forests (91T0–2.5 m3 ha−1) and Old acidophilous oak woods (9190–4.4 m3 ha−1), and the highest for Riparian mixed forests (91F0–43.1 m3 ha−1) and Acidophilous Picea forests of the montane to alpine levels (9410–55.4 m3 ha−1). The ratio of deadwood volume to living tree volume ranged from approx. 1%–17%. Additionally, the presence of large deadwood differed among habitat types: in some, there were no deadwood pieces with a diameter of ≥50 cm, while their maximum density was 6.1 pieces ha−1. The logistic regression model showed that the likelihood of a habitat type to have a ‘favorable conservation status’ as defined by deadwood abundance (a threshold of at least 20 m3 ha−1 according to Polish manuals on habitat type evaluation) increased with sample plot elevation, site fertility, and moisture, as well as stand age and volume. Positive effects were also observed for forests under strict and active protection versus managed forests. Planned efforts are necessary to enhance the quality of habitats with insufficient deadwood, especially in managed forests. Special attention should be given to areas that are readily accessible due to gentle terrain and low site moisture. Furthermore, younger stands on less fertile sites may require intervention to promote deadwood accumulation. We recommend retaining a certain proportion of mature stands until natural death and decomposition. Increasing the density of large deadwood is currently one of the most pressing conservation needs in most habitat types.

Standing and downed deadwood at different stages of decay provides a crucial habitat for a wide range of organisms. It is particularly abundant in unmanaged forests, such as strictly protected areas of national parks and nature reserves. The present work used the available data for such sites in Poland, analyzing a total of 113 studies concerning 79 sites to determine the causes contributing to variation in deadwood volume based on the duration of conservation, changes in deadwood volume over time (for those sites which were examined multiple times), elevation above sea level, forest type, stage of forest development, input of dead trees from the years preceding deadwood measurements, live tree volume, and the proportion of downed to standing deadwood). Depending on species composition and site altitude, most tree stands fell into one of four categories: subalpine spruce forests, montane beech-fir forests, low altitude beech-fir forests, or oak-hornbeam and riparian forests. The mean deadwood volume for all forest types amounted to 172.0 m3/ha. The mean volume of deadwood in montane beech-fir forests (223.9 m3/ha) was statistically significantly greater than in the other three forest types, for which it ranged from 103.5 to 142.5 m3/ha. A direct effect of the duration of conservation on deadwood volume was not identified. Nevertheless, analysis of repeated measurements on the same sample plots at 10-year intervals showed a consistent rise in mean deadwood volume. A linear regression model for all the analyzed factors reported from montane beech-fir forests and subalpine spruce forests showed that in addition to site altitude, another statistically significant variable was the input of dead trees (R2 = 63.54%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The majority of food web studies are based on connectivity, top‐down impacts, bottom‐up flows, or trophic position (TP), and ecologists have argued for decades which is best. Rarely have any two been considered simultaneously. The present study uses a procedure that integrates the last three approaches based on taxon‐specific secondary production and gut analyses. Ingestion flows are quantified to create a flow web and the same data are used to quantify TP for all taxa. An individual predator's impacts also are estimated using the ratio of its ingestion (I) of each prey to prey production (P) to create an I/P web. This procedure was applied to 41 invertebrate taxa inhabiting submerged woody habitat in a southeastern U.S. river. A complex flow web starting with five basal food resources had 462 flows >1 mg·m−2·yr−1, providing far more information than a connectivity web. Total flows from basal resources to primary consumers/omnivores were dominated by allochthonous amorphous detritus and ranged from 1 to >50,000 mg·m−2·yr−1. Most predator–prey flows were much lower (<50 mg·m−2·yr−1), but some were >1,000  mg·m−2·yr−1. The I/P web showed that 83% of individual predator impacts were weak (<10%), whereas total predator impacts were often strong (e.g., 35% of prey sustained an impact >90%). Quantitative estimates of TP ranged from 2 to 3.7, contrasting sharply with seven integer‐based trophic levels based on longest feeding chain. Traditional omnivores (TP = 2.4–2.9) played an important role by consuming more prey and exerting higher impacts on primary consumers than strict predators (TP ≥ 3). This study illustrates how simultaneous quantification of flow pathways, predator impacts, and TP together provide an integrated characterization of natural food webs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Standing dead trees (snags) play important roles in forest ecology by storing carbon as well as providing habitats for many species. Moreover, snags preserved for hundreds of years can provide useful data to extend tree-ring chronologies used for climatological and ecological studies beyond the lifespans of living trees. Here we examined the growth patterns of Scots pine snags from the central Scandinavian Mountains, in relation to still living trees. Using changes point analyses, we showed that a majority (74%) of the snags displayed significant negative growth changes prior (on average 17 years) to death. Change points around the same years were also seen in living trees, but they recovered their growth. The average growth reduction of snags showing negative growth changes before death was 46%. In most cases the final growth change points coincided with very cold summers, or to a lesser degree to period of cool summers. It was suggested that pines ending up as snags were less resilient than the trees which continued living, and thus not able to recover after cold summer events. Since the snag growth reductions prior to death were partly unrelated to climate, care should be taken when using such data in dendroclimatological studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Standing dead trees, or snags, represent post-disturbance biological legacies in forest ecosystems, and intentional creation of new snags is increasingly common during forest treatments. The abundance, volume, size, and distribution of snags can affect wildlife communities and stand-level biological diversity. Characteristics such as the wood properties of different tree species, environmental conditions, and cause of tree death (e.g., insects, disease, senescence, wind, fire) can influence decomposition and subsequent use of snags by wildlife. The objectives of this study were to characterize decay patterns in jack pine ( Pinus banksiana ) snags that had been killed by prescribed fire, topping, and girdling and determine the effects of these treatments on subsequent snag use by subcortical insects and primary cavity-nesting birds. The prescribed fire, topping, and girdling treatments were implemented in 2003, 2004, and 2007, respectively; bird excavations were quantified in 2014 and insect activity was measured in 2016. One-way analysis of variance tests were used to examine any differences among treatments in snag characteristics, decay characteristics, past insect activity, and past use by birds. An information theoretic approach to model selection was then used to rank potential predictors of bird foraging activity and cavities. The topping treatment had unique decay characteristics relative to the other two treatments; topped snags had the highest levels of past insect colonization, were softer, and had higher proportions of loose bark remaining on the boles. Trees killed by prescribed fire had the greatest number of foraging excavations and cavities. Girdled snags had the lowest evidence of past insect colonization and showed different levels of decay and insect use at different vertical positions on the snag bole. Comparison of candidate models showed that a model containing treatment type alone was the highest ranked when predicting foraging by birds, while snag diameter was the highest ranked when predicting the presence of cavities. A model containing treatment and snag density was also a highly ranked for predicting cavity presence. Our findings suggest that different jack pine snag treatments result in unique decay trajectories that may influence snag use by an array of wildlife taxa. Our characterization of three snag creation treatments can also inform options for generating snags, depending on the desired outcome, when management for biological legacies and wildlife habitat is of interest within mixed-pine forests of the Great Lakes region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have studied the share of coarse woody debris (CWD) reserves at different decay classes in the spruce and fir woodland within the impact area of aerial pollution from the Middle Ural Copper Smelter (Revda, Sverdlovsk oblast). Control and impact areas slightly differ in total reserves and number of trunks of CWD (sum of standing and fallen dead wood). However, the number of CWD tends to grow in proximity to the plant. The mechanisms involved in CWD-reserve formation differ between impact and control sites. A larger number of relatively thin trunks prevail in CWD reserves of impact sites when compared to the lower number of thick trunks at control sites. The CWD share of 30% in the total number of dead and living trees did not differ across pollution loads. However, the share of CWD reserves in total stock is 1.9 times higher near the plant than at the control site. The share of logs at the initial stages of decomposition (first and second decay classes) is 3.2 times higher in terms of CWD number and 4.2 times higher in terms of CWD reserves than at the control sites. This points to the strong inhibition of CWD decomposition. The pattern of decay classes of all sizes of fallen trees significantly differs in volume across pollution zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim of study: The aim of this study was to 1) estimate the amount of dead wood in managed beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) stands in northern Iberian Peninsula and 2) evaluate the most appropriate volume equation and the optimal transect length for sampling downed wood. Area of study: The study area is the Aralar Forest in Navarra (Northern Iberian Peninsula). Material and methods: The amount of dead wood by component (downed logs, snags, stumps and fine woody debris) was inventoried in 51 plots across a chronosequence of stand ages (0-120 years old). Main results: The average volume and biomass of dead wood was 24.43 m3 ha-1 and 7.65 Mg ha-1, respectively. This amount changed with stand development stage [17.14 m3 ha-1 in seedling stage; 34.09 m3 ha-1 inpole stage; 22.54 m3 ha-1 in mature stage and 24.27 m3 ha-1 in regular stand in regeneration stage], although the differences were not statistically significant for coarse woody debris. However, forest management influenced the amount of dead wood, because the proportion of mass in the different components and the decay stage depended on time since last thinning. The formula based on intersection diameter resulted on the smallest coefficient of variation out of seven log-volume formulae. Thus, the intersection diameter is the preferred method because it gives unbiased estimates, has the greatest precision and is the easiest to implement in the field. Research highlights: The amount of dead wood, and in particular snags, was significantly lower than that in reserved forests. Results of this study showed that sampling effort should be directed towards increasing the number of transects, instead of increasing transect length or collecting additional piece diameters that do not increase the accuracy or precision of DWM volume estimation. Keywords: snags; downed logs; stumps; fine woody debris; beech; line intersect sampling.

Necromass has a relevant role to play in the carbon stock of forest ecosystems, especially with the increase of tree mortality due to climate change. Despite this importance, its quantification is often neglected in tropical forests. The objective of this study was to quantify the carbon storage in a secondary Atlantic Forest fragment in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Coarse Woody Debris (CWD), standing dead trees (snags), and litter were quantified in twenty 10 m x 50 m plots randomly positioned throughout the forest area (simple random sampling). Data were collected during 2015, from July to December. The CWD and snags volumes were determined by the Smalian method and by allometric equations, respectively. The necromass of these components was estimated by multiplying the volume by the apparent density at each decomposition classes. The litter necromass was estimated by the proportionality method and the average of the extrapolated estimates per hectare. The carbon stock of the three components was quantified by multiplying the necromass and the carbon wood content. The total volume of dead wood, including CWD and snag, was 23.6 ± 0.9 m3 ha−1, being produced mainly by the competition for resources, senescence, and anthropic and climatic disturbances. The total necromass was 16.3 ± 0.4 Mg ha−1. The total carbon stock in necromass was 7.3 ± 0.2 MgC ha−1. The CWD, snag and litter stocked 3.0 ± 0.1, 1.8 ± 0.1, and 2.5 ± 0.1 MgC ha−1, respectively. These results demonstrate that although necromass has a lower carbon stock compared to biomass, neglecting its quantification may lead to underestimation of the carbon balance of forest ecosystems and their potential to mitigate climate change.

Restoration of old-growth forest structure is an emerging silvicultural goal, especially in those regions where old-growth abundance falls below the historic range of variability. However, longitudinal studies of old-growth dynamics that can inform silvicultural and policy options are few. We analyzed the change in structure, including stand density, diameter distribution, and the abundance of large live, standing dead, and downed dead trees on 58 late-successional and old-growth plots in Maine, USA, and compared these to regional data from the U.S. Forest Inventory and Analysis program. Structural dynamics on the late-successional plots reflected orderly change associated with density-dependent growth and mortality, but dynamics on the old-growth plots were more variable. Some plots experienced heavy mortality associated with beech bark disease. Diameter distributions conformed poorly to a classic exponential distribution, and did not converge toward such a distribution at the plot scale. Although large live trees showed a broad trend of increasing density in regional forests, recent harvesting patterns offset a considerable fraction of those gains, while mean diameter was static and the number of large dead trees was weakly declining. Even though forests of the northeast are aging, changes in silviculture and forest policy are necessary to accelerate restoration of old-growth structure.

Forest biodiversity conservation requires precise, area-wide information on the abundance and distribution of key habitat structures at multiple spatial scales. We combined airborne laser scanning (ALS) data with color-infrared (CIR) aerial imagery for identifying individual tree characteristics and quantifying multi-scale habitat requirements using the example of the three-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus) (TTW) in the Bavarian Forest National Park (Germany). This bird, a keystone species of boreal and mountainous forests, is highly reliant on bark beetles dwelling in dead or dying trees. While previous studies showed a positive relationship between the TTW presence and the amount of deadwood as a limiting resource, we hypothesized a unimodal response with a negative effect of very high deadwood amounts and tested for effects of substrate quality. Based on 104 woodpecker presence or absence locations, habitat selection was modelled at four spatial scales reflecting different woodpecker home range sizes. The abundance of standing dead trees was the most important predictor, with an increase in the probability of TTW occurrence up to a threshold of 44⁻50 dead trees per hectare, followed by a decrease in the probability of occurrence. A positive relationship with the deadwood crown size indicated the importance of fresh deadwood. Remote sensing data allowed both an area-wide prediction of species occurrence and the derivation of ecological threshold values for deadwood quality and quantity for more informed conservation management.

Stand dynamics in the boreal forest are driven by wildfire, and many think that emulating forest fire patterns during harvesting will adequately preserve biodiversity. We tested this hypothesis by examining saproxylic beetle assemblages from a chronosequence of aspen forest stands originating after wildfire or harvest across several age classes (1–2, 14–15, 28–29 years old) as well as from mature (60–80 years old) and overmature (>120 years old) stands of pyrogenic origin. Using window-traps attached to standing dead snags we collected over 6300 saproxylic beetles representing 310 species. Saproxylic beetle assemblages collected immediately post-fire and post-harvest differed significantly; however, by 30 years post-disturbance beetle assemblages had begun to converge with some general similarities evident among stands that were 28–29 years old. Beetle catch and richness was not greatly affected after fire; however, immediately following stand harvest there was a spike in species richness and beetle catch followed by a significant decrease in both metrics in the 29 year old stands. Cluster analysis and non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination indicated that assemblages from stands regenerating 1–2 years after fire and harvest were dissimilar from those of the other stand ages, and that samples from the burned stands tended to be more variable in composition than those from the harvested stands until our last sample 29 years post-disturbance. Saproxylic beetle assemblages were dominated by mycophagous and predatory species, with different species represented in stands regenerating after fire and harvest. Although the saproxylic beetle fauna of the western Canadian boreal forest seems reasonably resilient to disturbance in the present landscape context, retention of large-diameter coarse woody material in a variety of decay classes and selective burning of some residual woody material should facilitate recolonization by saproxylic species by retaining important microhabitat features that are rarefied by harvest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Large old trees are some of the most iconic biota on earth and are integral parts of many terrestrial ecosystems including those in tropical, temperate and boreal forests, deserts, savannas, agro-ecological areas, and urban environments. In this review, we provide new insights into the ecology, function, evolution and management of large old trees through broad cross-disciplinary perspectives from literatures in plant physiology, growth and development, evolution, habitat value for fauna and flora, and conservation management. Our review reveals that the diameter, height and longevity of large old trees varies greatly on an inter-specific basis, thereby creating serious challenges in defining large old trees and demanding an ecosystem- and species-specific definition that will only rarely be readily transferable to other species or ecosystems. Such variation is also manifested by marked inter-specific differences in the key attributes of large old trees (beyond diameter and height) such as the extent of buttressing, canopy architecture, the extent of bark micro-environments and the prevalence of cavities. We found that large old trees play an extraordinary range of critical ecological roles including in hydrological regimes, nutrient cycles and numerous ecosystem processes. Large old trees strongly influence the spatial and temporal distribution and abundance of individuals of the same species and populations of numerous other plant and animal species. We suggest many key characteristics of large old trees such as extreme height, prolonged lifespans, and the presence of cavities - which confer competitive and evolutionary advantages in undisturbed environments - can render such trees highly susceptible to a range of human influences. Large old trees are vulnerable to threats ranging from droughts, fire, pests and pathogens, to logging, land clearing, landscape fragmentation and climate change. Tackling such diverse threats is challenging because they often interact and manifest in different ways in different ecosystems, demanding targeted species- or ecosystem-specific responses. We argue that novel management actions will often be required to protect existing large old trees and ensure the recruitment of new cohorts of such trees. For example, fine-scale tree-level conservation such as buffering individual stems will be required in many environments such as in agricultural areas and urban environments. Landscape-level approaches like protecting places where large old trees are most likely to occur will be needed. However, this brings challenges associated with likely changes in tree distributions associated with climate change, because long-lived trees may presently exist in places unsuitable for the development of new cohorts of the same species. Appropriate future environmental domains for a species could exist in new locations where it has never previously occurred. The future distribution and persistence of large old trees may require controversial responses including assisted migration via seed or seedling establishment in new locales. However, the effectiveness of such approaches may be limited where key ecological features of large old trees (such as cavity presence) depend on other species such as termites, fungi and bacteria. Unless other species with similar ecological roles are present to fulfil these functions, these taxa might need to be moved concurrently with the target tree species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tree cavities can provide critical roosting sites for cavity-using vertebrates. These sites can directly affect productivity and survival of bats. Histiotus magellanicus, one of the bat species with the southernmost distribution in the world, is suspected to use tree cavities, under bark, caves and human buildings for roosting. We document the first records of this bat roosting in tree cavities created by both cavity-facilitators (i.e., excavators) and tree-decay processes on standing dead and large decaying trees in Andean temperate forests, southern Chile. Our records contribute to improve current knowledge of roosting habitat of H. magellanicus. We discuss these natural history records on roosting site selection and the potential importance of tree cavities for this species in southern temperate ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of research was to study the species composition and similarity of coarse woody debris mycobiota of Betula pendula Roth, identification of its specific groups in forests of Ukrainian Polissya. Methods. Mycological, forest mensuration, mathematical and statistical methods were used for research. Results. Ninety five species of fungi from 62 genera were isolated and identified as a result of mycological analysis of 1368 samples of B. pendula coarse woody debris. The majority of fungi (79 species) belonged to the phylum Ascomycota. It was found that some species of mycobiota occurred on certain components and destruction classes of B. pendula coarse woody debris. Pattern similarity of mycobiota of the same and neighboring destruction classes of snags, logs, dead branches were found for silver birch forest of Ukrainian Polissya. Correlation analysis of the structure of fungal communities showed that powerful and strong groups are formed in the highest species diversity: logs of the III and V classes of degradation and snags of the III class decomposition. It was shown that the coarse woody debris components play an integral role in the formation of fungal complexes, strong determination and a clear correlation structure of which provide a basis for their use as biogeocenosis indicators for studying the effects of anthropogenic and other factors. Necessity to leave of logs and dead branch pieces of different destruction classes after forest using was established for maintaining of biodiversity in birch biogeocenoses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]