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Carbon emission from pig production is an issue of great importance owing to its effect on global warming. Differed from widespread large-scale pig farms in North America and Europe, small-scale and smallholder pig farms are mainly concentrated in China. However, information on carbon emissions from Chinese smallholder pig farms is limited. Additionally, large amounts of drugs and vaccines have been applied during smallholder pig production in China, yet their contribution to carbon emissions is unclear. Therefore, detailed dataset which records all inputs during a pig's entire life cycle should be obtained, so as to accurately determine the magnitude of carbon emissions from Chinese smallholder pig farms. This study took Yancheng, eastern China, as an example and adopted the carbon footprint (CF), life cycle inventory (LCI), and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) greenhouse gas (GHG) field calculations to accurately estimate the GHG emissions resulting from pig production of China. Furthermore, the contributions of vaccine application and other driving forces behind GHG emissions were identified using statistic methods. In the study area, the pig CFs in the nursery period, fattening period, and full life cycle were 5.83, 4.73, and 6.75 kg CO2 eq·kg−1 respectively. The CF of pig production in the study area varied from 4.74 to 9.48 kg CO2 eq·kg−1, with an average of 6.75 kg CO2 eq·kg−1; this average was, overall, higher than that of large-scale pig farms in North America and Europe. GHG emissions from manure (42.87%) and fodder (27.77%) were responsible for a large proportion of the total CF. Normal vaccine inputs contributed highly (15.33%) to the total CF. The contribution of vaccine application to the CF is roughly evaluated, suggesting it may be a potentially important source of GHG emissions in pig production and should receive more attention in the future. Furthermore, GHG emissions from smallholder pig production farms can be significantly reduced by developing a mixed crop-livestock system, increasing the application of organic fertilizers, and installing biogas digesters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial insemination (AI) is widely practiced in many countries for enhancing pig productivity. Success of this technique is dependent upon quality boar semen production and profitability of the farm. Besides increasing the productivity of non-descript pigsreared under smallholder pig production system, the establishment of boar semen production unit has potential scope for entrepreneurship development in the north eastern part of India. The present study investigated detailed requirements for establishment of boar semen production unit and their cost benefit analysis based on the retrospective study of five years data of a boar semen production unit for backyard smallholder pig production system. A total of 65 healthy male piglets were chosen during weaning out of which 54 pigs were selected for training for semen collection based on their breeding soundness. A total of 1820 ejaculates were collected from the trained boars and AI doses prepared after evaluation. The extended semen was preserved in incubator at 15-18ºC and used for insemination within three days of storage in smallholder pig producers in the region. The results revealed that 79.62% of boars were successfully trained to mount a dummy sow for semen collection. The average gel-free ejaculatory volume, sperm motility and sperm concentration were 214.26 ±9.23 ml, 85.00±0.82 % and 258.50± 9.19 million/ml respectively. Average of 10 ejaculates was collected from each boar in a month, which yielded 110 AI doses per month. Average semen production cost per AI dose was INR 35.78, including the chemical cost (INR 3.39) for extender. Average insemination cost per sow/gilts in small holder production system was INR 455.79, which included the catheter and transport cost. The cost benefit analysis of boar semen production unit with five boars revealed the income generation of INR 31688.89 per month. The present study demonstrates the feasibility and profitability of boar semen production unit for the backyard smallholder pig production system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pig production has a high potential for increasing household incomes of both rural and urban smallholder farmers. However, this opportunity is constrained by the high cost of feeds and its scarcity. As such, farmers usually feed pigs on multiple feed resources within their reach. Although the diversity of pig feeds is important in overcoming the challenges, there is limited information on how this can be achieved, and the factors influencing it. Using a cross-section of 240 pig farming households, this study assessed how socio-demographic, technical and institutional factors influenced household pig feed diversity. Statistical analysis was performed at p < 0.1, p < 0.05 and p < 0.01), respectively. Results showed that marital status (p = 0.012), household size (p = 0.085), number of crop (p = 0.008) and other livestock enterprises (p = 0.055), ownership of mobile phone (p = 0.091), buying feeds (p = 0.005), and use of radio (p = 0.032) and friend as sources (p = 0.002) of agricultural information had a positive significant influence on household pig feed diversity. Additionally, age (p = 0.042), land size owned (p = 0.085) and breed [rearing local (p = 0.009) and crosses (p = 0.000) as opposed to exotic breeds] had a negative significant influence on household pig feed diversity. The study recommends that focus should be placed on improving access to farm inputs, agricultural and market information for smallholder pig farmers so as to improve pig feed diversity and subsequently enhance production and productivity. Radio and mobile phone technologies are opportunities that can support information sharing.

Pig production has a high potential for increasing household incomes of both rural and urban smallholder farmers. However, this opportunity is constrained by the high cost of feeds and its scarcity. As such, farmers usually feed pigs on multiple feed resources within their reach. Although the diversity of pig feeds is important in overcoming the challenges, there is limited information on how this can be achieved, and the factors influencing it. Using a cross-section of 240 pig farming households, this study assessed how socio-demographic, technical and institutional factors influenced household pig feed diversity. Statistical analysis was performed at p < 0.1, p < 0.05 and p < 0.01), respectively. Results showed that marital status (p = 0.012), household size (p = 0.085), number of crop (p = 0.008) and other livestock enterprises (p = 0.055), ownership of mobile phone (p = 0.091), buying feeds (p = 0.005), and use of radio (p = 0.032) and friend as sources (p = 0.002) of agricultural information had a positive significant influence on household pig feed diversity. Additionally, age (p = 0.042), land size owned (p = 0.085) and breed [rearing local (p = 0.009) and crosses (p = 0.000) as opposed to exotic breeds] had a negative significant influence on household pig feed diversity. The study recommends that focus should be placed on improving access to farm inputs, agricultural and market information for smallholder pig farmers so as to improve pig feed diversity and subsequently enhance production and productivity. Radio and mobile phone technologies are opportunities that can support information sharing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing short food supply chains for products from local pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) breeds may offer chances for smallholders in rural areas to participate in niche markets and obtain additional income. Because the authenticity and distinctness of products are crucial for establishing marketing, this study compared selected product characteristics of pork from the Vietnamese Ban breed with pork from crossbreds, each derived at their typical market weight and from their respective extensive and semi-extensive production environment; thus resembling the combination, the products are available for customers. Traditional Ban pork could be effectively discriminated from crossbred pork through cut dimensions, exemplified by the significantly reduced loin eye area (P

Slaughtered at heavy live weights, carcasses of the autochthonous Vietnamese Ban pig breed are not marketable on the highly remunerative niche markets of the urban Red River Delta. Therefore, Ban pigs are traded often at just 10 to 15 kg to avoid excessive fat accumulation. However, already, a moderate increase of slaughter weights might lead to rising profits for smallholder farmers in the uplands. Thus, this research aimed at investigating the effect of increasing live weight on the carcass composition and meat quality of indigenous Ban pigs qualifying for commerce on high-end markets. Fifty-six castrated male Ban fatteners with body weights ranging from 6.5 to 29.3 kg were collected from smallholder farmers applying a feeding system based on banana pseudostem ( Musa spp.) and slaughtered by local slaughterers according to common practice. The carcass quality of 51 animals and, additionally, meat quality parameters of the loin and ham of 56 animals were assessed. For the evaluation of increased live weights on commodity prices, two pricing systems based on actual market prices for Ban fatteners in Son La town and Hanoi were suggested. Carcass fat depots did not significantly increase when body weights were raised from 12 to approximately 20 kg, and the distribution of primal cuts and the meat quality of the loin and ham were relatively stable. Thus, the currently applied slaughter weights for purebred Ban pigs appear to be suboptimal, and a moderate increase of slaughter weights to approximately 20 kg is feasible and could result in monetary benefits. In this context, the role of small-scale slaughterers for value chain upgrading is discussed. In conclusion, increasingly formalized value chains for traditional pork products could provide the potential to not only contribute to rural development in the Southeast Asian Massif, but also to the conservation of animal genetic resources of a highly valuable eco-cultural region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chinese smallholder pig producers, only outputting few pigs per year, still supply the major portion of pork consumed in the country. Research and policy focusing on this sector may therefore contribute to reducing rural poverty. This study analyzed factor productivity and reproductive performance of 162 traditional smallholder pig producers in a 50km2 area of Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, southern P.R. China, by using the PRY Herd Life Model and comparing the actual to two simulated improved pig management scenarios. A progeny history survey covering 184 sows and 437 farrows, combined with an analysis of the quantity and quality of feed given and of live weight development of 114 pigs during a 16 months' time period supplied the base data. Feed energy content averaged 14.9MJMEkg−1 DM, age at first farrowing was 14.5±4.34 months and farrowing interval was 11.4±2.73 months. A litter comprised 5.8 piglets and was weaned after 4.3±0.99 months. Monetary return on inputs (ROI) was negative for the current management (0.93:1), but improved (1.7:1) when culling of sows and fatteners was optimized for highest output per feed input. If in addition better feeding and higher sales prices at fixed ages were simulated, ROI substantially improved to 3.1:1 and beyond for four different grower groups. Results point to the potential of the regional smallholder pork production if simple measures of improvement in feeding, culling and breeding are introduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated the success rate, genetic improvement, and monetary benefit of artificial insemination (AI) technology in smallholder backyard pig production system. The pig production system was studied, and performance of nondescript and crossbred pigs under the traditional system was evaluated. Litter size and growth rate of crossbred pig was significantly ( P < 0.05) higher compared to the nondescript pigs. Non-availability of superior germplasm to produce crossbred pigs and high mating cost were the major constraints observed in the study in addition to indiscriminate mating and non-availability of breeding boar. For genetic improvement of nondescript local pigs and to produce crossbred pigs, AI delivery mechanism was developed in participatory mode including farmers, village leaders, and key persons in 36 villages. The information system was designed in such a way that AI was carried out at the doorstep of the farmer upon request. A total of 167 estrus sow/gilts were artificially inseminated, and a farrowing rate of 78.44 % was obtained with a mean litter size of 7.86 ± 0.65 following AI, which did not differ significantly from natural service. However, the growth rate of crossbred piglets obtained through AI was significantly higher than the growth rate of piglets born out of natural service. The tribal farmers were benefited by AI in several ways: (1) timely availability of superior germplasm to produce crossbred piglets; (2) saved the mating cost of INR 1,000-1,200 and transport of cost (INR 300-400) of female to the boar premises and (3) controlled mating to prevent inbreeding. The present study clearly demonstrates the feasibility and potential benefit of AI technique to smallholder backyard pig production system in tribal rural areas. In addition to genetic improvement of nondescript local pigs, this technology can help in overcoming breeding constraints in smallholder backyard pig production for increasing productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose and methods: In situ conservation of pig genetic resources requires understanding of the farming systems under which the pigs are kept. The objective of the study was to characterise smallholder pig production systems where indigenous pigs are kept in order to assess opportunities for in situ conservation of these pigs. Factors influencing pig herd sizes, ranking of pigs in smallholder production systems, breeds and breed preferences, pig ownership patterns, traits preferred by farmers and constraints to production were investigated in a survey involving 199 farmers from Chirimhanzu District of Zimbabwe, Vhembe, Alfred Nzo and O. R. Tambo Districts of South Africa. Results: Income was the major factor influencing most pig production related parameters. Most pigs (69.67 %) were owned by women, with most of the women falling into the very low income group. Farmers kept pigs for several reasons that were common across geographical zones and income groups. The odds of a farmer ranking pigs first in the production system depended on the absence of other livestock ( P < 0.05). Farmers in the higher income group tended to mention poor feed resources and access to information as constraints ( P < 0.05) compared to the very low income group. There was preference heterogeneity in the breeds kept and the reasons for breed choice across the income groups and geographical zones. Fewer farmers in the very low income group (42.62 %) recognised the need to conserve local pigs compared to the low income group (80.49 %), the medium income group (50.00 %) and the high income group (100.00 %; χ = 19.14; P < 0.001). Conclusions: It was concluded that farmers see value in local pigs and are willing to conserve them. In situ conservation programmes are possible and these should recognise the role of poor women in conserving and enhancing indigenous pig genetic resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In Vietnam, pig production and pork demand are developing rapidly. Still, 80% of the national pig herd is kept on smallholder farms while policy mainly focuses on intensification of pig production. The aim of this study is to evaluate possibilities to organize pig breeding and marketing channels in remote areas in the uplands of Northern Vietnam. The study compiles three parts: (1) Evaluation of farmers breeding management and breed and trait preferences for pigs; (2) Evaluation of different crossbreeding schemes for leaner meat production; and (3) Design of appropriate organizational settings for pig breeding and marketing. Ban pigs are the second most predominant breed next to the Mong Cai. Ban pigs are valued by farmers for their feed intake spectrum, feed intake capacity, disease tolerance, health/strength, growth rate and carcass quality. For all modelled crossbreeding schemes, genetic gain is low; the Yorkshire×Ban crossbreeding scheme shows the highest overall genetic gain. The traditional production and fattening of Exotic boar×Local dam F1 crosses does not require particular organizational setups. This system already exists in an improvised way. The advantage of an organized scheme would be the controlled maintenance of the local breed. For the latter, a stratified pig breeding system seems promising, requiring innovative organizational setups. A short food supply chain is proposed. This system builds links between remote and close-to-market villages and populations. Critical organizational aspects like poorly developed infrastructure, poor access to input and output markets and information can be overcome. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Village breeding programmes are being developed by an integrated long-term project for smallholders in Northwest Vietnam to improve pig production in different production systems. In total, 120 smallholders with 169 sows in 5 of the 9 project villages were approached in single person interviews, using a structured questionnaire. Frequency analysis of data on breeding management and ranking of smallholders'' trait preferences and selection criteria used for pigs were performed with SAS 9.1, using the FREQ procedure. Survey results indicate that both improved local breeds and exotic genotypes should be incorporated in future village breeding programmes for market-oriented smallholder pig production, improving the reproductive and growth performance as well as the carcass quality. In a next step, a model reflecting the status quo at farms with market-oriented pig production was developed integrating data from farmers'' survey and information from the project''s current recording scheme. A deterministic approach was used to assess the profitability and genetic merit of the current recording scheme. Modelling results show that the current recording scheme is unprofitable (−33.90 € sow−1). As continued success of village breeding programmes depends on the profitability of breeding measures, the long-term sustainability of the current recording scheme seems unlikely. Genetic gains are achieved in production and carcass quality traits, while a small reduction in reproduction traits can be observed. In a last step, possible effects of increased pig performances on the profitability and genetic merit of the current recording scheme were evaluated. Effects of increased pig performances on the genetic and economic success of the recording scheme are generally limited. Further model calculations are necessary for finding possibilities to improve smallholder pig breeding in a profitable way. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study analyses developmental trends, and the driving forces behind them, in smallholder pig production systems in the marginalized mountainous areas of North-west Vietnam. Fieldwork was conducted from 2001 to 2002 in a total of 64 households in four villages in North Vietnam of varying remoteness. Data on developments in pig production were derived from structured household interviews and analysed by loglinear models. The findings of Rapid Rural Appraisal on historical developments are also presented. Spreadsheet models were developed simulating four production alternatives: demand-driven pig production with higher-yielding Vietnamese Mong Cai sows or resource-driven production with lower-yielding local Ban sows, generating offspring either through purebred boars of the respective breed or with higher-yielding Large White boars. Starting from the base models of the four genotype/production system combinations, the following scenarios were tested: (1) increased performance through improved management, (2) modification of end products, and variation of (3) input costs and (4) end-product prices. Evaluation variables were gross margin (GM) and net benefit (NB) of pig production. Results show a rapid transition process from subsistence to increasingly market-oriented production, beginning even before the reforms of 1986 (Doi Moi) but gaining considerable momentum afterwards. Differentiation of production systems was observed in regions that differed in remoteness and environmental conditions. In the base model, improved Large White×Mong Cai pigs yielded the highest GM and local Ban pigs the lowest; Large White×Ban pigs yielded the highest NB and Mong Cai pigs the lowest. Under a scenario of considerably increasing feed costs, Large White×Ban pigs became more beneficial than Large White×Mong Cai pigs based on GM as the decision criterion. Modelling results are compared with current conditions in the Vietnamese pig sector. The probability of local Ban pigs becoming a beneficial production alternative is critically discussed, as is the methodological approach of the study. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study investigated the productive adaptability of pig breeds under different smallholder production conditions in Vietnam, comparing an indigenous with a Vietnamese improved breed. Fieldwork was conducted in four villages with different remoteness in North Vietnam from 2001 to 2002, in 64 households keeping the improved Mong Cai or indigenous Ban as sow breeds and progeny for fattening. Four visits per farm yielded 234 structured interviews. Reproductive performances were derived from 135 litters. Individual weights of pigs (n =755) were obtained. Data were analysed by regression, linear and generalised linear, especially loglinear models. Two distinct pig production systems were identified, that differed in remoteness, market access, resource availability, distribution of pig breeds and pig production intensity. Higher performances of 1.4 and 1.5 litters year−1, 8.4 and 8.4 piglets weaned litter−1, 66.6 and 93.0 kg piglets weaned sow−1 year−1, and 136 and 177 g day−1 ADG were found in two villages near town with semi-intensive production conditions and a high rate of improved Mong Cai sows and MC and LW×MC offspring in the observed population. Lower performances of 1.1 and 1.1 litters year−1, 4.6 and 5.5 piglets weaned litter−1, 20.5 and 30.9 kg piglets weaned sow−1 year−1, and 66 and 85 g day−1 ADG were observed in parallel to higher incidences of indigenous Ban pigs away from town under extensive conditions. Total live weight offtake per household per year was higher near town and in one village distant to town. MC and LW×MC remained even under demand-driven conditions below the performance potential reported for improved genotypes. Under resource-driven conditions with a saving-oriented production pattern, the higher-yielding but more demanding Mong Cai might not be an efficient production alternative as a further performance reduction can be assumed. A considerable live weight output was observed under resource-driven conditions and with a higher percentage of crossbred LW×Ban offspring in the population, possibly representing a promising production alternative. Factors influencing the performance expression of pigs, and the suitability of different methods for the assessment of performance parameters on-farm are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]