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Both mould growth and underheating in housing are widely recognised as health concerns, but the problematisation and handling of these issues varies greatly in different nations. In this paper we compare Danish and English understandings of mould and cold in homes. Drawing on Bacchi's ‘What is the problem represented to be?’ framework, we ask how mould is understood in the two national contexts by analysing how it is problematised in key national policy documents, uncovering the effects of these contrasting problematisations on the way in which mould is managed in rental housing. Following Bacchi's approach, we find that contrasting problematisations of mould lead to highly divergent management approaches, in turn shaping public health consequences for those living with mould and cold. While in Denmark mould is central to rental housing management, and considered an important issue in its own right, in England mould is seen as a by-product of under-heating as a result of fuel poverty. In Denmark, a discourse of poverty is suppressed, since mould is framed as a building issue rather than related to income inequality, while in England mould in buildings is not adequately addressed due to a strong focus on access to warmth. By showing how policy problematisations shape housing management, our work suggests the value of a critical approach to housing and energy policy, which has salience to contexts beyond the UK and Denmark. We finish by identifying the risks of these narrow problematisations, suggesting the productive possibility of tackling both mould and cold together.

skimmel.dk har hidtil fokuseret på at hjælpe beboerne - men i nogle bygninger er god indeklimaadfærd ikke nok. Ansvaret for et godt indeklima ligger både hos beboerne, bygningsejer og eventuel driftspersonale.

Skimmelsvampe danner under deres vækst i bygninger både sporer og flygtige stoffer, der er mistænkt for at give helbredsgener for bygningsbrugere. Ved renovering af skimmelsvamperamte bygninger anbefales det, at al inficeret materiale fjernes eller afrenses. Men somme tiderer dette ikke fysisk eller økonomisk muligt. Forsegling eller indkapsling anvendes ved nogle renoveringer, men metoden har aldrig været testet videnskabeligt. Formålet med projektet var at undersøge om det er muligt at forsegle/indkapsle skimmelsvampevækst i bygningens sværttilgængelige dele af klimaskærmen, således at sporer og flygtige stoffer forbliver på og i de materialer, de er dannet på og ikke trænger ud i indeklimaet, hvor mennesker opholder sig.Gips- og OSB-plader blev opfugtet og de skimmelsvampesporer, der naturligt var i materialerne, fik lov til at gro ud. Frigivelse af sporer, partikler og flygtige organiske stoffer (TVOCer) blev undersøgt under laboratorieforhold i CLIMPAQ opstillinger. Mycometer Air blev anvendt tilsporedetektion og en Lasair II til partikelbestemmelse. Ethanol blev brugt som modelstof for TVOCerne og detekteret med en Innova 1312 gasmonitor. Almindelig Flügger akrylvægmaling, Luxi maling på spraydåse og Protox Forsegler blev testet for deres evner til at indkapsle sporer,partikler og ethanol. Skimmelsvampe danner under deres vækst i bygninger både sporer og flygtige stoffer, der er mistænkt for at give helbredsgener for bygningsbrugere. Ved renovering af skimmelsvamperamte bygninger anbefales det, at al inficeret materiale fjernes eller afrenses. Men somme tiderer dette ikke fysisk eller økonomisk muligt. Forsegling eller indkapsling anvendes ved nogle renoveringer, men metoden har aldrig været testet videnskabeligt. Formålet med projektet var at undersøge om det er muligt at forsegle/indkapsle skimmelsvampevækst i bygningens sværttilgængelige dele af klimaskærmen, således at sporer og flygtige stoffer forbliver på og i de materialer, de er dannet på og ikke trænger ud i indeklimaet, hvor mennesker opholder sig.Gips- og OSB-plader blev opfugtet og de skimmelsvampesporer, der naturligt var i materialerne, fik lov til at gro ud. Frigivelse af sporer, partikler og flygtige organiske stoffer (TVOCer) blev undersøgt under laboratorieforhold i CLIMPAQ opstillinger. Mycometer Air blev anvendt tilsporedetektion og en Lasair II til partikelbestemmelse. Ethanol blev brugt som modelstof for TVOCerne og detekteret med en Innova 1312 gasmonitor. Almindelig Flügger akrylvægmaling, Luxi maling på spraydåse og Protox Forsegler blev testet for deres evner til at indkapsle sporer,partikler og ethanol.

This report presents the concept of ‘Dynamic Heating Accounts' in the context of social housing in Denmark.The Danish National Building Foundation has funded a project to test whether and how Dynamic Heating Accounts can be used in social housing. As part of the project, the Foundation wish to share the preliminary results with California Environmental Protection Agency, CalEPA.The report covers the principle behind, a thorough description of the methods for defining the specifications for temperature, relative humidity and CO2, as well as the framework for dividing the heating costs among the apartments. This report presents the concept of ‘Dynamic Heating Accounts' in the context of social housing in Denmark.The Danish National Building Foundation has funded a project to test whether and how Dynamic Heating Accounts can be used in social housing. As part of the project, the Foundation wish to share the preliminary results with California Environmental Protection Agency, CalEPA.The report covers the principle behind, a thorough description of the methods for defining the specifications for temperature, relative humidity and CO2, as well as the framework for dividing the heating costs among the apartments.

Driftspersonalet er centrale aktører i håndteringen af problemer med skimmelsvampevækst i danske lejeboliger. Denne afhandling bidrager, gennem en kvalitativ undersøgelse, til en dybere forståelse for både hvordan skimmelsvampevækst er et problem i lejeboliger, og hvordan driftspersonalet kan støttes i deres vigtige arbejde med at forebygge skimmelsvampevækst. Gennem interviews med de mange involverede parter i skimmelproblemer – driftspersonale, beboere, rådgivere, myndigheder m.fl. - etableres et mangefacetteret billede af, hvordan disse problemer er komplekse og kræver dedikerede resurser til samarbejde mellem mange forskellige parter og fagligheder.

Denne rapport beskriver resultaterne fra forskningsprojektet: Luftudveksling mellem bolig og tagrum. I projektet blev det undersøgt, i hvilket omfang der sker udveksling af luft mellem bolig og uudnyttede tagrum. Målet var på sigt at kunne vurdere, hvilken betydning mulig skimmelsvamp i et tagrum har for eksponeringen i den underliggende bolig samt at kunne vurdere fugtoverførslen fra boligen til uopvarmede tagrum.Luftudvekslingen mellem boliger og udnyttede uopvarmede tagrum blev undersøgt ved en passiv sporgasmetode. Metoden blev anvendt ved placering af to typer sporgasser i hver sin zone, hhv. bolig og tagrum. På baggrund af målte koncentrationsniveauer i de respektive zoner, samt beregnede emissionsrater baseret på temperaturmålinger, kunne udvekslingen mellem zonerne bestemmes, foruden luftskifterne i de to zoner. Der indgik 30 huse i undersøgelsen, og målingerne blev foretaget i to perioder for hvert hus; hhv. en kold og en varm periode. De 30 huse fordelte sig på byggeår fra 1920’erne til 2010’erne, et enkelt hus var dog fra 1719. Der var 19 huse med dampspærre i loftet og 11 huse uden. Derudover blev to typer af tagkonstruktioner undersøgt, men fordelingen var ikke ligelig (25-5). Det samme gælder huse med/uden mekanisk ventilation (6-24) og fordelingen mellem huse med mineraluld og cellulosebaseret loftisolering (27-3). Alle husene var placeret på Sjælland. Der blev desuden målt temperatur og relativ fugtighed i både boliger og tagrum samt målt udeklima.Undersøgelsen viste, at der forekom luftudveksling mellem bolig og uudnyttet, uopvarmet tagrum i begge retninger i både varme og kolde perioder. Dette gjorde sig gældende uanset, om der var en dampspærre eller ej. Som gennemsnitsbetragtning blev det fundet, at den opadgående luftoverføring var større end den nedadgående luftoverføring.På baggrund af de målte resultater, kunne der ikke konstateres en sammenhæng mellem udeluftskifte i tagrummet og absolut fugtindhold. Der kunne dog etableres en sammenhæng mellem den opadgående luftoverføring og fugttilskuddet fra boligen til tagrummet – jo højere opadrettet luftoverføring des mindre fugttilskud, dvs. forskel mellem fugtindhold i tagrummet i forhold til fugtindhold i boligen.Luftskifterne i boligerne blev målt til relativt lave værdier i forhold til bygningsreglementets krav om grundluftskifte på 0,30 l/s pr. m² opvarmet etageareal, hvilket tilnærmelsesvis svarer til 0,5h-1. Ingen af de undersøgte boliger levede op til kravet i vinterperioden, og kun fire boliger levede op til kravet i sommerperioden. Målingerne af luftskifterne i tagrummene viste en stor variation. Der blev konstateret synlig skimmel i tagrummene i tre af de undersøgte huse. Alle disse tagrum blev målt til at have relativt lave luftskifter i tagrummene.

Indoor fungi are a worldwide problem causing negative health effects for infected building's occupants and even deterioration of building structures. Different fungal species affect buildings and their inhabitants differently. Therefore, rapid and accurate identification of fungi to the species level is essential for health risk assessment and building remediation. This study focuses on molecular identification of two common indoor fungal genera: Stachybotrys and Chaetomium. This study proposes two new DNA barcode candidates for Stachybotrys and Chaetomium: the gene encoding mitogen activated protein kinase (hogA) and the intergenic region between histone 3 and histone 4 (h3-h4) as well as it introduces a rapid - 3.5 h - protocol for direct Stachybotrys and Chaetomium species identification, which bypasses culture cultivation, DNA extraction and DNA sequencing.

UNLABELLED Five hundred and twenty-two teachers from 15 public schools, eight 'water-damaged' schools, and seven 'non-damaged' schools with no visible water damage were included in a cross-sectional design. Mold growth was assessed by recording the amount of dust on the floor and in the air in classrooms and the content of a number of mold species in the dust (CFU/g dust). The evaluation of health symptoms included symptoms recorded by questionnaire and spirometry, bronchial challenge, and CO-diffusion capacity. Nasal lavage fluid was analyzed for IL-8 and ECP. Personal and psychosocial factors were included as confounders. In this study population mucus membrane irritation symptoms (MMI) and general symptoms were reported more frequently by women than by men with odds ratios ranging from 1.4 to 2.1. Women's reports of symptoms from mucous membranes and skin and general symptoms were positively associated with mold exposure. Odds ratio for 'difficult to concentrate' after adjustment for confounders was 11.2 (1.4-90.1, 95% CI) at high levels of mold exposure. None of the lung function tests performed in this study were associated with mold exposure, to the 'water damaged' vs. 'non-damaged' classification, or to the symptoms reported. IL-8 and ECP were not associated either. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS Psychosocial and personal reasons dominate in MMI and general symptoms. Headache and difficulties to concentrate associated with indoor mold exposure, mainly for women. No lung function impairment associated with indoor mold exposure.

UNLABELLED A newly developed dustfall device that collects airborne dust by sedimentation has been evaluated in Danish schools. Dust collected over 140 days was compared with airborne dust sampled during single school days and settled floor dust sampled at the end of a school day. Measurements of culturable fungi in air samples corresponded well to those from the dustfall collector in mechanically but not naturally ventilated rooms. Levels of beta(1 --> 3)glucan and culturable fungi in dust from the dustfall collector and settled floor dust did not agree well. Up to 10 times more beta(1 --> 3)glucan per milligram dust was found in the dustfall collectors than in settled floor dust. Only in dust from the dustfall collector was the mass concentration of culturable fungi (cfu/mg) significantly correlated with the degree of dampness. The culturability of fungi in the 140-day dustfall samples tended to be lower than in other types of samples. Nonetheless, the results indicated that the dustfall collector can be used to estimate the median concentration of airborne culturable fungi, provided identical sampling periods are used for all samples. The collector is cost effective and simple to use. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS Traditional ways of assessing exposure to microorganisms by sampling airborne dust or dust from floors have several disadvantages. In the present paper, a new sampler, the dustfall collector, which collects airborne dust by sedimentation over a period of months, is introduced. Tests of this collector indicate that it can be used to estimate the mean concentration of airborne culturable fungi but not beta(1 --> 3)glucan over a long period and that the method can differentiate between buildings with different levels of water damage.

UNLABELLED In this stratified cross-sectional study in eight 'wet' and seven 'dry' schools, 1024 adolescent school children reported potentially building-related symptoms (BRS) in self-administrated questionnaires. From their classrooms dust samples were collected from floors, ventilation ducts, and air; settled dust was collected in cardboard boxes over a period of 5 months. Measurements of temperature, relative humidity and CO2 were performed. BRS were strongly associated with personal factors like recent airway infections, hay fever, asthma and psycho-social work load, but also to molds in floor dust and presence of mechanical ventilation. The association between molds in floor dust and BRS has in stratified analyses shown a strong association among adolescent school boys, and no association among adolescent school girls using multivariable analyses controlling for relevant confounders. In contrast to the menstruating school girls, the symptoms among the small group of not yet menstruating girls were associated with the levels of molds in floor dust. Their symptom prevalences were very similar to those of the boys. This finding makes us suggest a new hypothesis: The higher endogenous estrogen levels of sexually matured adolescent females seems to protect them from the effects of molds in dust, despite their overall higher symptom prevalence. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS In this cross-sectional epidemiological study of adolescent school children we found independent significant positive associations between building-related symptoms and viable molds in floor dust in boys and non-menstruating girls. In contrast, no such associations were seen among menstruating girls. The identification of these two susceptible groups adds further support the relevance of minimizing sources of dust and mold exposure.

Effektiv afhjælpning og vurdering af skimmelsvampevækst i bygninger kræver en forudgående undersøgelse. Anvisningen gennemgår en metode til at gennemføre en sådan tilstandsundersøgelse af fugt og skimmelsvampevækst i bygninger. Anvisningen indeholder bl.a. en række checkskemaer til praktisk brug ved undersøgelsen, samt en vejledning i, hvordan man kan foretage en sundhedsmæssig og bygningsteknisk vurdering af undersøgelsens resultater. Desuden beskrives baggrunden for at vækst af skimmelsvampe opstår i bygninger, og der gives en oversigt over årsager til at væksten opstår.

Skimmelsvampe i bygninger kan være sundhedsskadelige for brugerne og ødelæggende for bygningen, og skal derfor fjernes. Anvisningen beskriver, hvordan man planlægger og gennemfører en renovering af bygninger angrebet af skimmelsvampe, samt hvilke midler og meoder, der findes til at fjerne skimmelsvampevækst fra materialer, konstruktioner og inventar i en bygning, der er angrebet af skimmelsvampe.

Rapporten dokumenterer resultaterne af et stort tværfagligt forskningsprogram om skimmelsvampe i bygninger. Der er gennem programmet frembragt vigtig ny viden om skimmelsvampenes virkninger på mennesker og deres vækst og spredning i bygninger. Baggrund og fremgangsmåde for programmets 13 projekter, der har omhandlet sundhedsmæssige, mikrobiologiske og byggetekniske forhold, beskrives, og resultaterne dokumenteres med de væsentligste data. Resultaterne er overordnet opsummeret i en særskilt rapport, By og Byg Resultater 020: Skimmelsvampe i bygninger.

Stachybotrys was found to be associated with idiopathic pulmonary hemorrhage in infants in Cleveland, Ohio. Since that time, considerable effort has been put into finding the toxic components responsible for the disease. The name Stachybotrys chartarum has been applied to most of these isolates, but inconsistent toxicity results and taxonomic confusion prompted the present study. In this study, 122 Stachybotrys isolates, mainly from water-damaged buildings, were characterized and identified by combining three different approaches: morphology, colony characteristics, and metabolite production. Two different Stachybotrys taxa, S. chartarum and one undescribed species, were found in water-damaged buildings regardless of whether the buildings were in Denmark, Finland, or the USA. Furthermore, two chemotypes could be distinguished in S. chartarum. One chemotype produced atranones, whereas the other was a macrocyclic trichothecene-producer. The second undescribed taxon produced atranones and could be differentiated from S. chartarum by its growth characteristics and pigment production. Our results correlate with different inflammatory and toxicological properties reported for these same isolates and show that the three taxa/chemotypes should be treated separately. The co-occurrence of these three taxa/chemotypes in water-damaged buildings explains the inconsistent results in the literature concerning toxicity of Stachybotrys isolated from that environment.

Rapporten opsummerer resultaterne af et stort, tværfagligt forskningsprogram om skimmelsvampe i bygninger. Det er for første gang dokumenteret, at der er en sammenhæng mellem skimmelsvampe i gulvstøv og irritationssymptomer fra øjne og øvre luftveje, samt hovedpine, svimmelhed og koncentrationsbesvær. På det byggetekniske område har forskningsprogrammet givet en større forståelse for skimmelsvampenes vækstvilkår på forskellige materialer og for, hvordan skimmelsvampe spredes, og dermed hvordan man eksponeres for skimmelsvampe i bygninger. Der er desuden udviklet metoder, som hurtigt kan give oplysninger om skimmelvækst i bygninger.

Thirty-one isolates of Stachybotrys chartarum from indoor and outdoor environments were analyzed for the presence of the trichodiene synthase (Tri5) gene, trichothecenes, boar sperm cell motility inhibition, and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA banding patterns (RAPDs). Twenty-two S. chartarum isolates tested positive for the Tri5 gene and nine were negative when tested using novel Tri5 gene-specific PCR primer pair. The Tri5 gene positive isolates contained satratoxins (five isolates) or the simple trichothecene, trichodermol (11 isolates). The Tri5 gene negative isolates did not produce satratoxins or trichodermol. Nineteen S. chartarum isolates, distributed among the Tri5 gene negative and positive groups, inhibited boar spermatozoan motility at concentrations of [Formula: see text]60 μg of crude cell extract/mL. The inhibition of motility was independent of satratoxins or atranones. Unweighted pair group method of arithmetic averages (UPGMA) cluster analysis of RAPD fragments clustered the 31 S. chartarum isolates in two distinct groups designated as RAPD groups 1 and 2. The grouping of S. chartarum isolates obtained by UPGMA cluster analysis of RAPD fragments was identical to the grouping obtained by Tri5 gene-specific PCR. This indicates that the S. chartarum isolates belonging to different groups were genetically distinct in a much wider area than just the Tri5 gene.Key words: boar sperm cell motility inhibition, RAPD, Stachybotrys chartarum, toxicity, trichothecene, trichodiene synthase (Tri5) gene.

Skimmelsvampevækst i bygninger er forbundet med skadelige sundhedspåvirkninger af bygningernes beboere. Imidlertid forekommer den faktiske vækst kun i fugtige og vandskadede materialer og det er et voksende problem i Danmark, der skyldes mindre robuste konstruktioner, utilstrækkelig vedligeholdelse og for lidt ventilation. Denne ph.d.-afhandlings formål er at bestemme om mycotoxiner produceres i fugtige og vandskadede bygninger og også at undersøge miljøforholds (luftfugtighed og temperatur) indflydelse på produktionen af svampevækst og sekundær metabolisme. Mould growth in buildings is associated with adverse health effects among the occupants of the building. However actual growth only occurs in damp and water-damaged materials, and is an increasing problem in Denmark, due to less robust constructions, inadequate maintenance, and too little ventilation. This project was started to determine if mycotoxins are produced in damp and water-damaged buildings as well investigating the influence of environmental conditions (humidity and temperature) on the production of fungal growth and secondary metabolism.

The effects of whole spores from moulds were examined concerning histamine release using leukocyte suspensions from normal (non-atopic) individuals and grass pollen-allergic patients. Spores fromChaetomium globosum, Mucor racemosus andAspergillus terreus caused no histamine release in concentrations up to 0.1 or 1 mg/ml, but they enhanced mediator release triggered by both IgE-dependent stimuli (grass-pollen allergen and anti-IgE antibody) and non-immunological stimuli (Staphylococcus aureus and calcium ionophore). Organic dust contains microfungi as well as bacteria and endotoxins. Earlier we have shown that bacteria release mediators from human lung cells and that bacteria and their endotoxins potentiate mediator release. It is now demonstrated that fungal spores also have potentiating ability. The content of all these microorganisms in dust may therefore be responsible for the symptoms observed after occupational exposure to organic dusts.