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Na temelju istraživanjem dobivenih rezultata raspravlja se funkcionalnost ocjena kao jednoga od elemenata vrjednovanja. Koristi se specifičan dijalektički pristup povezan s elementima sistemske teorije. Dijalektika ove vrste očituje se u odnosu sistem/okolina u kojem sistem predstavlja strukturu školstva, dok okolinu označavaju akcijski elementi unutar/izvan/na rubu sustava (učenici, roditelji, nastavnici) – svi ovi elementi proučavaju se u njihovom odnosu prema ocjenama. Rezultati istraživanja upućuju na inflaciju odličnih ocjena. Naime, prosječna ocjena učenika koji su sudjelovali u istraživanju (od 2. do 8. razreda) iznosila je 4,7. Na temelju statističkih podataka prikazuje se odstupanje od normalne distribucije frekvencija te se teorijski preispituju mogućnosti i izazovi sustava (s ovakvim profilom podsustava ocjenjivanja) u okvirima sve više rastuće disperzije znanja (pluralnosti) koju suvremeno (post)moderno društvo nosi za sobom. Isto tako, rad karakterizira kontekstualna širina koja uključuje stavove o cjelokupnoj situaciji stjecanja određenih ocjena u učionici te popratnih društvenih odnosa koje te ocjene konstruiraju. Sukladno navedenomu, preispitane su hipoteze o važnosti ocjena s obzirom na razred koji učenici pohađaju te stavova učenika o odnosu nastavnika prema učenicima s obzirom na ocjene koje učenik ostvaruje. Rezultati su pokazali visoku povezanost važnosti ocjena i razreda koji učenici pohađaju. Isto tako, pokazala se povezanost važnosti ocjena i stavova o nastavnikovom tretiranju uspješnih i manje uspješnih učenika. Sinteza teorijske analize i popratnih empirijskih podataka upućuje na gubitak smislenosti ocjena unutar sustava školstva u Republici Hrvatskoj. Ocjene kao formativni dio sustava obrazovanja nisu funkcionalno određene k evaluaciji znanja, već su postale svrsishodne same po sebi., The main goal of this paper is to discuss (with the help of the empirical results) the structure and importance of grades for elementary school students in Zagreb. Specifically, the discussion is focusing on the functionality of grading as one of the elements of evaluation in the elementary school. It uses a specific dialectical approach anchored with elements of social system theory. Dialectics of this kind is manifesting in the system / environment relationship in which the system represents the structure of education, while the environment is indicated by action elements inside / outside / at the edge of the system (students, parents, and teachers) - all these elements are studied in their relation to grades. The results of the survey enrich the theoretical discussion. Results suggest that there is an inflation of the excellent (5) grade. Specifically, the average grade of students who participated in the survey (grades 2 through 8) has been 4.7. Based on statistics, deviations from the normal frequency distribution has been evident. That all raises the new challenges for the the system in the context of the increasing dispersion of knowledge (plurality) that modern (post) modern society entails. Accordingly, the hypotheses about the importance of grades has been reviewed with regard to the level of grade that students attend, students’ opinion about the teacher’s attitude toward students with respect to the grades that student achieves. The results showed a connection between the importance of grades and the school class (grade) that students attend. The above data point to the loss of meaningfulness of grades within the education system in the Republic of Croatia.

The centre of gravity is a neo-Clausewitzian warfighting concept, which aims to achieve disproportionate desired effects through the degradation of a limited but essential part of the enemy system. The concept favours an indirect approach and is used at all levels of warfare however, it has special importance for operational art, or the operational level of war. Although over the past few decades the centre of gravity has become the modus operandi of the planning and conduct of (major) military operations in a number of armed forces, questions arise about the true utility of the concept. From a theoretical standpoint, the centre of gravity has a realistic, ontological, and causal perspective as it is based on empirical evidence, co-shapes the perception of reality, and provides explanations of changes. Although some definitions of the centre of gravity are considered contradictory, with the help of conceptual analysis we can identify common dimensions of the concept, which are highlighted by several prolific authors. Namely, these dimensions, pertaining to the operational level of war, are: (1) the leader or commander with an assigned staff, (2) a key military unit, structure, or force, and (3) a computer or cyber network. A multiple-case study of five contemporary military operations (Operation Allied Force, the Five-Day War, Annexation of Crimea, Operation Cast Lead and the Invasion of Asadullah al-Bilawi) revealed that in each case, the winning side degraded the aforementioned subsystems, perceived as (potential) centres of gravity by key theorists, to a far greater degree than vice versa. The centre of gravity therefore retains its analytical value, although it could be further refined in terms of its relation to the complexity theory. The concepts of attractor and phase transition could be of use-the degradation of a key subsystem (centre of gravity) leads to a phase transition (a significant decrease of combat power) and thus to a shift from one to another strange attractor, i.e. to an alternative relatively stable state. Further, based on observations from numerous other systems, we can assume that warfare is also characterized by hysteresis. Točka osredotočenja je neoclausewitzevski vojskovalni koncept, ki stremi k doseganju disproporcionalnih želenih učinkov z degradacijo omejenega, a pomembnega dela sovražnikovega sistema. Koncept favorizira posredni pristop in se uporablja na vseh ravneh vojskovanja, kot ključen pa je obravnavan predvsem v operatiki oziroma na operativni ravni vojskovanja. Čeprav je točka osredotočenja v minulih desetletjih postala modus operandi načrtovanja in izvajanja (večjih) vojaških operacij v številnih oboroženih silah, se porajajo vprašanja o resnični uporabnosti koncepta. S teoretskega vidika ima koncept točke osredotočenja realističen, ontološki in vzročni vidik, saj je utemeljen na empiričnih opažanjih, (so)oblikuje dojemanje stvarnega sveta in posreduje razlage za spremembe v njem. Čeprav so nekatere opredelitve točke osredotočenja protislovne, pa lahko s konceptualno analizo ugotovimo, da na operativni ravni vojskovanja več pomembnih avtorjev poudarja enake dimenzije koncepta, in sicer: (1) vodjo oziroma poveljnika z dodeljenim štabom, (2) ključno vojaško enoto, strukturo oziroma silo in (3) računalniško oziroma kibernetsko omrežje. Na podlagi študije petih primerov sodobnih vojaških operacij (operacije Zavezniška sila, petdnevne vojne, operacije vrnitve Krima, operacije Liti svinec in invazije Alahovega leva al Bilavija) lahko sklenemo, da je v vseh obravnavnih operacijah zmagovalna stran uspela degradirati funkcionalnost omenjenih podsistemov sovražnika, ki jih ključni teoretiki dojemajo kot (potencialne) točke osredotočenja, v bistveno večji meri, kot je to v obratni smeri uspelo poražencu. Koncept točke osredotočenja torej ohranja analitično vrednost, pri čemer bi ga bilo mogoče vsebinsko dodelati oziroma ga tesneje povezati s teorijo kompleksnosti. Pri tem si lahko pomagamo s konceptoma atraktorja in faznega prehoda. Degradacija ključnega podsistema (točke osredotočenja) privede do faznega prehoda (izrazitega zmanjšanja bojne moči), s tem pa tudi do premika od enega k drugemu čudnemu atraktorju % novemu, razmeroma stabilnemu stanju. Na podlagi opažanj v številnih drugih sistemih lahko domnevamo, da je tudi za vojskovanje značilna histereza.

Purpose: In this article, the author defines legal entities (in title as »personas without soul« according to pope Innocent IV.) and classifies them by applying interest theory and an adapted method of system analysis, also taking into account the legal personality of legal entities. An innovative classification that is applicable not only for ad hoc legal-economic analyses but also for a practical classification of legal entities when establishing their personality, concerning both private and public law, is demonstrated in an original manner. Design/Methods/Approach: The research approach of this article is theoretical and uses comparative analysis. The author’s goal was to prove that legal entities can be classified in a legally-correct and economically-applicable manner, according to the interest and classical theories of systems, and not only through the forms of legal entities recognised in law. The classification originates in the ancient Roman classification of legal entities as corporations and foundations (universitas personarum, universitas bonorum) and classifies them according to the criteria of authoritativeness, functionality, and voluntary association. The approaches are compatible and can easily be arranged in a schematic form. Findings: The thema probandi of this article is to prove that legal entities can be classified in a legally-correct and economically-applicable manner also according to the interest and classical theories of systems and not only through the forms of legal entities recognised in law. The approaches are compatible and can easily be arranged in a schematic form. Such classification of legal persons is appropriate for security studies, as well as for broader economic and legal research. Originality/Value: The value of this article is that it proposes a new and original classification of legal entities. This is applicable, in a practical sense, universally and globally. In Slovenia it is applicable in its entirety, and can be partly applicable, however, in cases in which the legal order of a state determines the personality of legal entities, differently than is the case in Slovenia. In such an instance, the table can be easily and quickly adapted, as the criteria for the classification of legal entities into authoritative, functional, and associative, are, in the opinion of the author, universal. Namen prispevka: Avtor je v pričujočem prispevku pravne osebe klasificiral z vidika uporabnosti nove in inovativne tabele za raziskovalne in praktične namene. Pravne osebe (ki jih avtor naslovno imenuje »osebe brez duše« tako kot papež Innocent IV.) je avtor razvrstil po interesni teoriji in preneseni metodi klasifikacije upravnih sistemov, upoštevaje njihovo pravno subjektiviteto. Originalno je prikazana inovativna klasifikacija, ki je uporabna tako za ad hoc pravno-ekonomske analize kot tudi za praktično razvrščanje pravnih oseb pri potrebah za ugotavljanje njihove subjektivitete, pa naj gre za ekonomsko analizo prava, vprašanja zasebnega ali javnega prava ali praktične pravne postopke. Metode: Raziskovalni pristop oziroma metode v članku so kombinacija klasičnih pravnih metod teleološke razlage ureditve v kombinaciji s historično in delno komparativno analizo. Klasifikacija pravnih oseb zgodovinsko izhaja iz antične rimske in nato nemške razvrstitve pravnih oseb na korporacije in ustanove (universitas personarum, universitas bonorum) in jih sodobno umešča po merilih oblastnosti, funkcionalnosti in nepridobitnosti (oz. dobrodelnosti). Ugotovitve: Thema probandi raziskave, predstavljene v članku, je dokazati, da lahko pravne osebe pravno-pravilno in ekonomsko-uporabno klasificiramo tudi interesno in po klasični teoriji sistemov, ne samo skozi statusno-pravno obliko. Pristopi so med seboj združljivi in se jih da enotno tabelarično prikazati. Takšna klasifikacija je uporabna tako za varnostne študije kot tudi za ekonomske in pravne analize, ko je treba opredeliti subjektiviteto organizacij. Izvirnost/pomembnost prispevka: Izvirnost članka je v oblikovanju nove sodobne klasifikacijske tabele pravnih oseb, ki je uporabna tako za raziskovalne kot za praktične namene. Uporabnost navedene tabele je v njeni hitri uporabi, saj je iz nje prima vista razvidno, katere pravne osebe sodijo v javni sektor in katere v zasebnega. Nadalje je iz tabele razviden tudi interes, zaradi katerega so ustanovljene, ki je lahko javni/oblastni ali javni/neoblastni ter zasebni/profitni ali zasebni/neprofitni. Tabela omogoča nazorni pregled nad pravno subjektiviteto organizacij in ločevanje le-teh od organizacij, ki pravne subjektivitete nimajo. To je pomembno tako za delovanje pravnega sistema, pravno-ekonomske raziskave kot tudi za praktične pravne postopke.

Večdružinska skupinska podpora in pomoč je v slovenskem prostoru nepoznana oblika podpore in pomoči. V ZDA se je začela razvijati v 60-ih letih preteklega stoletja, vendar je, kljub številnim kliničnim poročilom o njeni uspešnosti, še vedno empirično malo raziskana. Pričujoče delo je temeljna in eksplorativna raziskava, ki je v pretežnem delu teoretična in v manjšem empirična. V teoretičnem delu raziskovalne naloge povzamem teorije, ki so povezane z razumevanjem večdružinske skupinske podpore in pomoči ter so prisotne v slovenski teoriji in praksi. Znanja o oblikah skupinske in družinske podpore in pomoči dopolnim s povzetki teorije sistemske terapije, teorije skupnih dejavnikov uspešnosti ter socialnega dela z družino. Dalje povzamem prvi (Laqueurov) model večdružinske skupinske terapije in njegove kasnejše različice. Znotraj njih raziščem različne settinge oz. kontekste, namene in cilje ter populacije in izvajalce. V razpravi teoretskega dela raziskave analiziram in sintetiziram obravnavane oblike podpore in pomoči s pomočjo grafičnih upodobitev njihovih procesov v interakcijskem polju. Opredelim 9 nivojev dela pri večdružinski skupinski podpori in pomoči ter možnosti strokovnih ravnanj oz. intervencij na posameznih nivojih. Teoretska izhodišča oz. teme izida teoretičnega dela raziskave nato preverim z empirično raziskavo. Kot raziskovalni instrument oblikujem odprta vprašanja in z deduktivnim pristopom analize pridobljenega empiričnega gradiva potrdim 4 teoretska izhodišča 3 ostanejo empirično nepreverjena in nobenega teoretskega stališča empirični podatki ne zanikajo. Nalogo zaključim z ugotovitvami: da lahko večdružinsko skupinsko podporo in pomoč primerjamo z družinsko in skupinsko obliko podpore in pomoči da omogoča integracijo raznolikih teorij, metod in pristopov dela z družinami da nudi družinam v procesu številne nove vire moči da je primerna oblika podpore in pomoči za večino populacij družin, s katerimi delamo socialno delo z družino da je časovno in stroškovno učinkovita oblika podpore in pomoči ter kompatibilna s socialnim delom z družino. Predlagam izvedbo pilotnega večdružinskega skupinskega procesa podpore in pomoči in znotraj njega, raziskovanje dela z družinami na stiku z njihovimi lokalnimi skupnostmi. Multiple family group support and help is an unknown form of support and help in Slovenia. In the United States, it began to develop in the 1960s. However, despite numerous clinical reports on its successful performance, it has still not been thoroughly empirically researched. The following thesis is a fundamental and exploratory study that is predominantly theoretical, and only empirical to a lesser degree. In the theoretical part of the research, I summarize the theories relating to the understanding of multiple family group support and help that are present in Slovenian theory and practice. I expand on the data on the different forms of group and family support and help by summarizing the theory of systems therapy, the theory of common factors and social work with families. Furthermore, I summarize the first (Laqueur’s) model of multiple family group therapy and its later versions. Through them, I explore different settings, purposes and goals, populations and practitioners. In the discussion part of the theoretical part of the research, I analyze and synthesize the examined forms of support and help by means of graphic depictions of their processes in an interactional field. I define nine levels of work with multiple family group support and help and the possible interventions at individual levels. I examine the outcome themes of the theoretical part of the research based on empirical research. As a research instrument, I formulate open questions and by using the deductive approach to analyze the obtained empirical material, I confirm 4 theoretical starting points 3 remain empirically unverified, and no empirical data refutes any of the theoretical starting points. I conclude the thesis with the following conclusions: multiple family group support and help can be compared to family and group support and help it is possible to integrate diverse theories, methods and approaches within it it provides a number of new sources of strength to families in the process it is a suitable form of support and help for most of the families with whom we do social work it is a time and cost effective form of support and help it is compatible with social work with families. I propose the implementation of a pilot multiple family group support and help process and, as part of that process, research into working with families at their point of contact with their local communities.

Empirična literarna znanost je v sedemdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja začrtala novo smer v literarni vedi, utemeljeno na zahtevah po preseganju hermanevtičnih metod in po upoštevanju znanstvenih meril, kakršna veljajo za družboslovne in naravoslovne discipline. Ti zahtevi sta ostali v ospredju do danes, vendar je prva sčasoma izgubljala ostrino. Pripravljenost na sprejemanje nekaterih hermenevtičnih tradicij se kaže tako na teoretični ravni, ki se je razvijala v znamenju radikalnega konstruktivizma in sistemske teorije, kot tudi na ravni posameznih empiričnih študij. Najnovejša prizadevanja po umestitvi empirične literarnoznanstvene paradigme v kontekst t. i. medijske znanosti dajejo povezovalnim težnjam nov teoretični okvir. Razprava se ukvarja z nekaterimi konceptualnimi vidiki tega procesa in poskuša nakazati smer, ki bi lahko privedla do utrditve položaja empirične literarne znanosti v aktualnem družbenem in znanstvenem prostoru. In the 1970s empirical literary criticism started a new direction in literary criticism, based on the requirements of overcoming hermeneutic methods and incorporating scientific criteria used by social and hard-core science disciplines. These requirements remain in the forefront until the present, even if, over the years, the former has lost its edge. Readiness to accept some hermeneutic traditions is evident both on theoretical level, the development of which has been marked by radical constructivism and system theory, as well as on the level of individual empirical studies. The most recent efforts to direct the empirical literary critical paradigm into the context of the so-called media science give a new theoretical framework to the integrating efforts. The paper discusses some conceptual aspects of this process and attempts to suggest the direction that could lead to a strengthened position of empirical literary criticism in the social and scholarly environment.

Pogovor Zagorkinu romanu Mala revolucionarka u izdanju Školske knjige

Izostanak Zagorkinog književnog djela iz povijesti hrvatske književnosti pa tako i nedostatak njegove kritičke evaluacije bit će početni teorijski fokus ovoga rada u smislu svojevrsnog devijantnog oslobođenja od dosadašnje dominantne književnoznanstvene normalne prakse. Problematizirat će se i sama izgrednost (u odnosu na kanon) nove teorijske vidljivosti Zagorke u recentnom diskursu znanosti o književnosti te će se na nju dalje priključiti izgredna analiza za Zagorku neobično kratkog historijskog romana. Iako začudno kratak, Mala revolucionarka heuristički je plodnim pozivima na devijaciju bogat roman, koji izaziva kritičko uposlenje sebe samog kao lokusa stvaranja mogućnosti pucanja retorike trivijalnoga i uspostavljanja alternative. Osim toga, ovaj je roman plodno tlo za analizu žanrovske odrednice historijskog romana, granice između romana i romanse, marginalnosti i mnogostrukih uokvirenja, te pojmova samoodnosnosti, autorefleksije, ukidanja reprezentacije heterologičnog referenta te paradoksa impliciranih dramaturški fabuliranim zapletima. Pri tome će se slijediti trag Luhmannove sistemske teorije, na književnost primijenjene u djelu Dietricha Schwanitza, kako bi se iz perspektive naracije (sinegdohalno) pokazalo operiranje određenih figura devijacije i tako omogućilo Maloj revolucionarki da počne rasti.

The article provides an overview of the theoretical origins of the empirical and systemic investigation of literature, formulated by the group of scolars centered around Siegfried J Schmidt. It also points out some typical achievements of the empirical literary scholarship (ELS), particularly with regard to the Duch sociological empirical school. The survey of the origins of the ELS is intended to limit the possibilities of an oversimplified and inadequate reception of the ELS in Slovenia. At the conclusion there is a short survey of the ELS, of oppurtunities that ELS offers to the Slovene literary scholarship, and the issue of interpretaion within its framework. Razprava pregledno prikaže teoretična izhodišča za empirično in sistemsko preučevanje literature, kakršna je oblikovala skupina znanstvenikov okrog J. Schmidta, pa tudi nekatere tipične praktične dosežke empirične literarne znanosti (ELZ), predvsem v zvezi z nizozemsko sociološko empirično šolo. S prikazom izhodišč ELZ za analizo literarnega sistema želi omejiti možnosti na njeno pavšalno in neustrezno recepcijo pri nas. Na koncu sledi še kratek pregled slovenske recepcije ELZ ponuja slovenski vedi, ter problematike interpretacije v nenem okviru.

Dobro je što autor polazi od svjetskih dostignuća u istraživanju pomorstva i brodarstva. Djelo razara mnoge tradicionalne predodžbe. Ono će pomoći novim brodarskim poduzećima u uspostavljanju i održavanju zrdavijih međuljudskih odnosa.

Sustavna teorija se u posljednjih 20 godina znatno modificirala pod utjecajem teorije kaosa i kompleksiteta, 2 pravca unutar discipline nelinearne dinamike