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Background: Self-medication refers to usage of drugs by population to cure self-diagnosed medical illnesses or symptoms without seeking medical advice. AI has become the prevailing technology in recent times, experiencing significant growth. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a surge in AI adoption, driven by concerns about visiting hospitals. Despite awareness of its potential drawbacks, relying on AI and online resources for medical and therapeutic purposes has become widespread. Objectives: This study determines the use of AI and Internet in self-medication as well as perceives the knowledge, attitudes, and self-medication practices among south Indian Pharmacy students. Methods: This is a cross-sectional study that included pharmacy students to evaluate the trends and practices of self-medication. A self-designed questionnaire was adopted that contained four sections including Consent, demographic details, AI in medications, Knowledge-Attitude-Practice sections. The data was collected both manually and via e-links. Results: The study included a total of 527 participants, among which 278 (52.8%) were females. 472 (89.56%) used internet and AI for diagnosing their condition, whereas 396 (75.14%) used to self-medicate. 315 (59.8%) had good knowledge and 521 (98.9%) exhibited positive attitude towards self-medication. The practice of selfmedication was high - 217 (41.2%) practiced self-medication within one month, 149 (28.3%) within two or three months, 101 (19.2%) within 6 months and 60 (11.4%) practiced a year ago. Conclusion: The study participants used more internet and AI for self-diagnosing as well as self-medicating than consulting the medical professionals. Majority had good knowledge and positive attitude with high prevalence of self-medication practices. Self-medication awareness and public health education has to be carried out in order to avoid unexpected reactions by self-medications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing evidence suggests that human movement, including international travel and mass forced population displacement, acts as a catalyst for global antimicrobial resistance (AMR) transmission. Immigration increases the likelihood of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains being imported into developed countries, particularly from several developing countries with high antimicrobial resistance. On the other hand, self-medication, easy access to over-the-counter drugs, promiscuous use, and lax oversight all contribute to an increase in antibiotic use in most lower-middle- and middle-income countries. It leads to antimicrobial resistance and an increased health burden, particularly in high-income countries. Third-party funding agencies are working to reduce the global antimicrobial resistance burden. Understanding the complex system of antibiotic overuse, third-party funding, and cross-border transmission of antimicrobial-resistant strains is a critical task for public health policymakers. In this study, a modeling framework is developed using a combination of epidemiological and game theory methods. This framework aims to describe the phenomenon of migration between countries, specifically focusing on the movement between developing and developed nations. Additionally, the framework incorporates the analysis of self-medication behavior within the developing population. Simulations of the model are conducted, followed by a sensitivity analysis, in order to investigate the influence of various parameters on the optimal funding amount. Our findings indicate that the total cost due to treatment of infection and funding is a convex function of the amount of third-party assistance. This means that there is an optimal level of funding in place to keep the total cost of antimicrobial resistance as low as possible. The sensitivity analyses in relation to various epidemiological and behavioral parameters indicate that the optimal fund is highly dependent on the other parameters of the system. Third-party assistance may be required, as predicted, to reduce the amount of self-medication, but it is only beneficial up to a certain point. These findings result in useful policy recommendations as well as intriguing new research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Objectives: This study evaluates the perceptions of pharmacists in Romania regarding self-medication, a growing practice with significant implications for public health and sustainable development. The main objective is to analyze the role of pharmacists in managing self-medication and educating the public on rational medication use. Methods: A descriptive and exploratory methodology was employed, using a questionnaire administered to 300 pharmacists from various regions in Romania between March and April 2024. The data analysis included Chi-square tests and linear regression to identify predictive factors. Results: The findings reveal a direct correlation between the frequency of self-medication and the perceived severity of conditions, with self-medication being more common for minor ailments. Experienced pharmacists are less likely to encourage self-medication. Public education on the risks of self-medication significantly reduces the prevalence of this practice. Conclusions: Self-medication, without proper regulation and education, risks becoming unsustainable. Targeted informational campaigns and educational programs tailored to diverse demographic groups are essential. Pharmacists play a critical role in promoting safe and responsible medication use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

DAGUSIBU is a program created by IAI (Ikatan Apoteker Indonesia) to provide health education with the aim of realizing the Gerakan Keluarga Sadar Obat (GKSO) which is a concrete in improving the quality of life of the community to achieve a high level of health. The objective of this research is to increase public knowledge about DAGUSIBU (Obtain, Use, Store, Dispose) of drugs through self-medication videos. The research method used is a pre-experimental study with a one-group pre-test/post-test design with a sample of 100 villagers. Data was collected using questionnaires. Data analysis was carried out using validity tests, reliability tests, and paired t-tests. The results of this study showed that the knowledge of DAGUSIBU before the video was 63.55% sufficient. Knowledge of DAGUSIBU after the video was 75.50% good. There was an effect of self-medication videos on DAGUSIBU knowledge (p<0.001), sociodemographic factors related to education knowledge (p<0.030) and sociodemographic factors not related to age knowledge (p<0.270) gender (p<0.156) occupation (0<2,14), history of illness (p<0.660). The conclusion of this study is that self-medication videos are effective in increasing DAGUSIBU knowledge in the community with high levels of education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coughing is a natural response by increasing the clearance of secretions and particles from mucus, irritants, foreign particles and microbes so that it becomes the body's defense mechanism. Inappropriate drug selection can cause the drug to be ineffective, worsen the disease and cause undesirable consequences. To determine the level of knowledge and the influence of cough medicine self-medication educational videos on the knowledge level of SMKN 1 Leuwimunding students before and after giving the video, to determine the influence of sociodemographic data on the level of cough medicine self-medication knowledge among SMKN 1 Leuwimunding students. There are 550 students at SMKN 1 Leuwimunding. The sampling technique used purposive sampling technique with a sample of 85 respondents. Pretest posttest questionnaires validated by experts and SPSS as well as videos as media for education. Quantitative pre-experimental design approach with a one group pretest-posttest design. The students' level of knowledge before giving the video was 57.48% (fair category) and the level of knowledge after giving the video was 80.90% (good category). The results of the Paired T test obtained a sig value. 0.000 so there is a significant influence between pretest and posttest knowledge. The results of the Chi square test obtained a p value of 0.004 so that there was an influence between the level of knowledge and demographic data for the parent's last educational category. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Background and Objective: Self-medication (SM) is an emerging practice in both developing and developed countries. The commonality of this behavior is observed in patients with specific environments. The current study endeavored to determine the prevalence of SM practices and their correlated factors among academic employees in Saudi Arabia. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted at King Saud University Hospital, recruiting 383 participants. The participants received an online survey on self-medication practices. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis. Results: In the study, all the participants reported practicing SM at least one time. Of those who practiced SM, 66.7% (102) were unmarried with a significant difference (P = 0.036) while 68.0% (117) had no children (P = 0.003). Non-Government employees and unemployed participants had the highest percentage of experiencing SM (70.5%, n = 31, P = 0.036). Our results reveal that health perceiving, life satisfaction, and religious reasons were not significantly associated with practicing SM with P value = 0.704, 0.535, and 0.482, respectively. In the univariate model, gender, marital status, and the number of children revealed a significant correlation with SM (P value = 0.136, 0.058, and 0.040), respectively. SM was 1.4 times as likely if the participant was female and 1.3 if the participant was unmarried. The multivariate regression model shows that gender and marital status lost their significance while number of children (P = 0.023) was significantly correlated with SM. Our results also show the main reasons for self-medication were prior knowledge (25%), time-consuming consultations (21.6%), the belief that the condition did not require a doctor (22.4%), and previous experience with similar symptoms (23%) while major causative clinical conditions involved in SM is pain (37.5%) and fever (28.4%). It also shows that 33% experienced no side effects and 34% experienced shortness of breath as a side effect of practicing SM. Conclusion: Our study spotted a significant frequency of SM behavior with high prevalence among University employees. Our study shows that gender, marital status, and number of children have a significant correlation with SM. The pharmacist's role is pivotal in promoting awareness for the safe utilization of over-the-counter drugs, and their proactive engagement is paramount. Educational health programs should be implemented to minimize SM malpractice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted a scoping review of peer-reviewed literature published between January 1, 1990 and October 31, 2021, to identify socioeconomic determinants that contribute to higher burden and adverse outcomes in diseases for which self-care is an important modality of treatment and prevention. We identified these diseases using over-the-counter medicines sales data sourced from IQVIA. We searched Ovid Medline, PubMed, and EMBASE databases for articles published in English using inclusion/exclusion criteria. We analyzed articles covering 42 diseases that qualified as cardiovascular disorders (219 studies including ischemic heart disease, myocardial infarction, stroke, and related risk factors such as hypertension, dyslipidemia and atrial fibrillation), nutritional disorders (66 studies including malnutrition which encompasses undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, and anemia), digestive disorders (40 studies including gastroesophageal reflux disorder, inflammatory bowel disease, and dyspepsia), allergy disorders (40 studies including asthma and allergic rhinitis), pain disorders (14 studies including lower back pain, knee pain, generalized musculoskeletal pain and headaches), dermatological disorders (23 studies including atopic dermatitis [eczema], occupational dermatosis, and facial dermatitis), respiratory disorders (11 studies including chronic cough, pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, wheezing, and influenza), and gynecological disorders (29 studies including bacterial vaginosis and trichomoniasis vaginosis). We found that lifestyle factors were the commonly reported risk factors, and residential segregation, education, and income were the commonly reported socioeconomic determinants. A closer analysis of income within each disorder revealed that it is more often associated with health conditions that are self-limiting. Although we did not find any discernible relationship between the commonly reported socioeconomic factors and the prevalence of self-medication for the health conditions considered, income plays an important role in the burden and outcomes of conditions that require more self-care compared to those that require less self-care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Foco (Interdisciplinary Studies Journal) is the property of Revista Foco and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Introduction: Self-medication with antibiotics (SMA)—the use of these drugs without a physician's diagnosis, supervision, or a medical prescription—has emerged as a significant crisis in many societies, being a particular concern in low- and middle-income countries. SMA practices hinder global efforts to reduce antibiotic consumption in the human health sector and to control antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The aims of the study were to explore the motivations, perspectives, and personal experiences of the Malaysian population related to SMA, analyzing their subjective viewpoints, attitudes, and behaviors. Methods: The present qualitative study applied an interpretivism paradigm to explore the complex topic of SMA; the interview questions were developed and confirmed by experts in AMR and pharmacy practice. Qualitative data analysis was carried out through a thematic approach. Results: Out of twenty-seven (n = 27) eligible individuals, eleven (n = 11) agreed to participate in in-depth interviews. Three main themes and seven subthemes were identified. Participants revealed directly purchasing antibiotics from pharmacies, due to doctors prescribing similar medications for comparable illnesses in the past. Trust issues related to physicians prescribing unnecessary additional medications and suspected personal motives were revealed. Budgetary constraints, timesaving, and aspects of self-care were identified as some of the key drivers for SMA. Conclusions: The current study's findings contribute to the understanding of the complexities surrounding SMA and provides insights into the public perceptions and behaviors regarding unregulated antibiotic use in Malaysia. Understanding these dynamics may inform targeted public health interventions to address SMA to mitigate the development of AMR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Self-medication has grown increasingly in developing countries, such as India, perhaps causing drug addiction and microbial resistance. Without proper medical supervision, self-medication can cause ineffective or excessive treatment, a delay in treatment, misdiagnosis, resistance to antibiotics, medicine abuse, and an increase in morbidity. Methodology: The population-based crosssectional analytical research done in urban slum. We questioned 400 individuals over the age of 18 at their homes. Data were acquired from individuals using a predesigned, pretested questionnaire as an interview tool. Objective: To determine self medication prevalence and its connection to various demographic risk factors. Results: Self-medication was prevalent, with 51% in selected urban slums. The most commonly self-administered drugs were analgesics (59.8%) and antacids (46.07%). Body discomfort (60.29%), Headaches (55.78%), feverish (53.43%), cough (41.01%), were among the most common conditions when participants used medication on their own. There was a significant relationship with self-prescribed medication use and healthcare professionals in the household (p = 0.00001) and among working participants (p = 0.009). Conclusion: Lower socioeconomic groups often use medications without consulting doctors, and chronic illnesses require continuous follow-up. Education on the dangers of self-medication is crucial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ingestion of bark has been observed across the animal kingdom and is well documented in free-ranging chimpanzees. Thus far, the best-supported hypothesis for the adaptive function of this behavior is the fallback food hypothesis, which asserts that chimpanzees consume bark and cambium when preferred foods are scarce. However, alternative explanations exist, including the essential nutrient and mineral hypothesis, the self-medication hypothesis, and the stressed-tree hypothesis. We tested whether the fallback food hypothesis can explain bark-feeding across two communities of Eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Budongo Forest, Uganda. We used 13 years of the site's long-term behavioral data, 5 years of food availability data, and 8 months of direct and indirect observations. We also conducted eight 400-m line transects to collect data on the distribution of tree species across community home ranges. We employed several analyses, including Pearson correlation tests, qualitative comparisons of descriptive data and heat maps, and interpretation of behavioral anecdotes. We found varying patterns of bark-feeding seasonality across tree species, with bark-feeding on several species showing no correlation with food scarcity. We also identified differences in the amounts of bark targeted between tree species and report anecdotal evidence of chimpanzees prioritizing bark over high-value foods. Lastly, we found that bark-feeding on certain species disproportionally occurs far from community core areas, despite relative abundance of these species within the home range. As a result, we argue that the fallback food hypothesis cannot explain bark-feeding across all tree species. Instead, we present supporting evidence for several alternative hypotheses, including self-medication, thereby challenging the widely accepted function of this behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Why do potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and substance use (SU) so commonly co‐occur during adolescence? Causal hypotheses developed from the study of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorder (SUD) among adults have not yet been subject to rigorous theoretical analysis or empirical tests among adolescents with the precursors to these disorders: PTEs and SU. Establishing causality demands accounting for various factors (e.g. genetics, parent education, race/ethnicity) that distinguish youth endorsing PTEs and SU from those who do not, a step often overlooked in previous research. Methods: We leveraged nationwide data from a sociodemographically diverse sample of youth (N = 11,468) in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study. PTEs and substance use prevalence were assessed annually. To account for the many pre‐existing differences between youth with and without PTE/SU (i.e. confounding bias) and provide rigorous tests of causal hypotheses, we linked within‐person changes in PTEs and SU (alcohol, cannabis, nicotine) across repeated measurements and adjusted for time‐varying factors (e.g. age, internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, and friends' use of substances). Results: Before adjusting for confounding using within‐person modeling, PTEs and SU exhibited significant concurrent associations (βs =.46–1.26, ps <.05) and PTEs prospectively predicted greater SU (βs =.55–1.43, ps <.05) but not vice versa. After adjustment for confounding, the PTEs exhibited significant concurrent associations for alcohol (βs =.14–.23, ps <.05) and nicotine (βs =.16, ps <.05) but not cannabis (βs = ‐.01, ps >.05) and PTEs prospectively predicted greater SU (βs =.28–.55, ps >.05) but not vice versa. Conclusions: When tested rigorously in a nationwide sample of adolescents, we find support for a model in which PTEs are followed by SU but not for a model in which SU is followed by PTEs. Explanations for why PTSD and SUD co‐occur in adults may need further theoretical analysis and adaptation before extension to adolescents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of conducting a systematic review of the available literature on antibiotic self-medication was to obtain comprehensive data on prevalence, reasons, common antibiotics, self-treated diseases, and drug and information sources of antibiotics used for self-medication worldwide. PubMed, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, and Taylor & Francis Online were used to perform a comprehensive search on articles published between 2011 and 2020 in the English language. Studies focusing on the prevalence of antibiotic self-medication and its associated factors were included in this review. AXIS Appraisal tool for Cross-sectional studies (AXIS tool) was used for quality assessment of the included articles. A total of 76 studies from diverse geographical locations, including 62668 individuals, were included in this systematic review. The prevalence of SMA in the included studies ranges from 2.6% to 86.5%. Major reasons for non-prescribed use of antibiotics include healthcare costs and time constraints. Respiratory tract infections, fever, and prophylaxis of various symptoms appeared to be prominent self-treated health issues. Pharmacy or superstore, leftovers, and relatives or friends were the most common sources of acquiring antibiotics for self-medication. Similarly, the majority tend to self-medicate with antibiotics based on information obtained from a pharmacy, previous prescription, or personal experience. Self-medication with antibiotics was considered a pervasive issue, with penicillin being the most commonly self-medicated antibiotic. Lack of public awareness and little attention of researchers to not only self-medication but also other related issues such as antibiotic resistance, necessitates the immediate development and execution of public health policies and multifaceted interventions to ensure rational use of antibiotics eventually reducing antibiotic resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Worldwide, trans people are known to take hormones without prescription or take higher or lower doses than prescribed. The study's goal was examination of the social context behind provision and receiving of gender-affirming hormonal therapy (GAHT) in Russia, as well as collection of opinions on the organization of healthcare. Methods: Semi-structured interviews with 20 trans individuals and 6 endocrinologists. Results: Trans respondents started GAHT between 2004 and 2022. Over that period, the number of trans-competent endocrinologists increased and it became easier to receive the diagnosis F64.0 "transsexualism" (ICD-10), which qualifies one to obtain GAHT. However, the majority still took hormones without supervision. The reasons for self-medication included: the lack of the diagnosis, high cost of appointments and tests, age under 18, and self-perceived understanding of principles of GAHT. Most endocrinologists learnt about GAHT after being approached by a trans patient. They received information from advanced training courses and academic literature. The specialists had diverse opinions on the ideal policy of providing GAHT to trans people, but all claimed that in Russian political realities they found the diagnosis "transsexualism" a necessary prerequisite for initiating GAHT to safeguard both doctors and patients. Conclusions: The lack of strict law enforcement in the pharmacological sphere in Russia enabled many trans people to initiate GAHT without supervision. Trans-competent endocrinologists were available for those who needed them. Under current political circumstances it is unlikely that the informed consent model (prescription without a psychiatric diagnosis) can be implemented in Russia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Authors discuss the connections between novel psychoactive substance (NPS) use and psychological trauma. The transition from classical substances to NPS, a paradigm change, poses a challenge for the treatment systems. Objective: Research evidence suggests difficulties in emotion regulation and trauma-related NPS-use. Authors explore some demographic and psychopathological characteristics related to such findings and examine the connections between emotion regulation deficiency and the choice of substance. Method: This study uses a methodological triangulation of a biologically identified sample to confirm NPS use, a survey method to describe users' socioeconomic characteristics, and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) subscales to study dysfunctions in emotion regulation. Results: Participants (77 patients) were mainly polydrug users. The transgenerational transfer of substance use was a salient feature, but material deprivation was not characteristic of the entire sample. NPS use was not connected to certain psychopathological characteristics the way classical substance use was. More than half of the respondents had elevated scores on MMPI-2 Demoralization (RCd) and Dysfunctional Negative Emotions (RC7) scales. Nearly half of them also scored high on Neuroticism/Negative Emotionality (NEGE). Conclusions: Results suggest that NPS use in the context of polydrug use is connected to psychological trauma and emotion regulation deficiency, but the MMPI-2 scales to assess emotional dysfunctions are not connected to a particular type of NPS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, cannabis use by people suffering from PTSD, as a means of alleviating their symptoms, has increased. Nonetheless, scant research has examined the lived experience of women who use cannabis to cope with PTSD. Eight semi-structured interviews with Israeli women who use cannabis to cope with PTSD were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). The results of this research highlight the utility of cannabis for women coping with symptoms of PTSD, and the advantages of cannabis over other medications. Nevertheless, the main challenge with cannabis use in the context of PTSD is the feeling of detachment that it engenders. This feeling of detachment helps women to manage symptoms when they become unbearable but can also reduce their ability to be fully present in their relationships and everyday life, and increase feelings of self-alienation and helplessness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Antimicrobial resistance poses a serious threat to healthcare globally. Reviewing current practice regarding antibiotic prescription and use is crucial to understanding antimicrobial resistance issues in Iraq and how to tackle them. Aim: To review and analyse studies addressing antimicrobial resistance as well as antibiotic prescription, dispensing and use in Iraq. Methods: In June 2023, we searched Google Scholar for, and reviewed, empirical studies related to antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance in Iraq. Results: Thirty-seven eligible studies published between 2012 and 2023 were included in the review. Multi-drug-resistant bacteria, such as E. coli and P. aeruginosa, were commonly reported by the studies. Most physicians in public hospitals prescribed antibiotics frequently and empirically without relying on culture and sensitivity tests, and community pharmacists often dispensed antibiotics to patients without prescriptions, indicating self-medication and misuse of antibiotics in Iraq. Antibiotic residuals were found in raw meat and drinking water. Although there were antimicrobial resistance control regulations and plans, they were not fully implemented. Conclusion: This review shows that antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic misuse are serious problems in Iraq. The responsible authorities should work together to implement and enforce compliance to the antimicrobial resistance control plans using the One Health approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Pneumonia is an acute respiratory infection caused by several infectious agents, such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi. It affects the lungs. This study aimed to assess mothers' knowledge and practices regarding pneumonia in children under five years of age in Makambako town. The study focused on exploring knowledge, awareness, practices, and the extent to which mothers understand the disease and measures taken to protect children to prevent and reduce the disease prevalence. Methodology: A community-based descriptive cross-sectional study design was used, employing random and purposive sampling techniques to obtain 106 respondents in the study area who filled out the structured questionnaires. All questionnaires were checked for completeness and then entered into SPSS for analysis. The prevalence is high, as there were 2647 cases of pneumonia in 2017 compared to 1938 cases in 2016. Results: Based on the study findings, the high prevalence of childhood pneumonia in Makambako town council is caused by low knowledge and poor practices of mothers concerning childhood pneumonia, as 70.8% of mothers do not know what pneumonia is about, 72.6% of mothers do not know health risk factors associated with childhood pneumonia, and 77.3% do not know how pneumonia is transmitted. Some mothers perform cultural and traditional beliefs, while others perform self-medication and take a child to the hospital when the conditions worsen. Most do not know if proper nutrition and immunization, as signified by 99% and 81%, respectively, are the most effective ways to protect a child against pneumonia. Conclusion and recommendations: The study concludes that mothers' knowledge and practices associated with improper nutrition and immunization contribute much to children's pneumonia. Therefore, the study suggests proper nutrition and immunization education should be done appropriately to protect children from pneumonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Medicina Pro Praxi is the property of SOLEN sro and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background: Consecutive visitors to a public science event at Leipzig University were asked about their opinions/attitudes regarding their personal use of self-medication. Methods: A written questionnaire survey addressed (i) participants' characteristics, (ii) frequency of self-medication use in the last 12 months, (iii) symptoms/complaints most frequently considered applicable, (iv) preconditions, (v) limitations, (vi) risks, (vii) fears, (viii) medication information sources, (ix) influencing factors, and (x) reasons for decision making. Results: (i) A total of 189 visitors (median age: 29.0 years; Q25/Q75: 22.0/44.0) participated, of whom 64.0% were female, 38.6% had a university degree, 20.1% were in training, and 14.8% were licensed in a healthcare profession. (ii) A total of 59.3% of participants stated that they had used self-medication regularly in the last 12 months. The most common answers in the respective questions were (iii) headache, 86.2%; (iv) mild complaints/symptoms, 94.7%; (v) duration, 91.6%; (vi) "self-medication may cause adverse drug reactions", 94.2%; (vii) "developing a habituation effect", 58.7%; (viii) pharmacists, 93.7%; (ix) "physician's recommendation", 89.3%; (x) "intensity of complaints", 92.6%; and (vi) 61.3% believed that they could choose an appropriate self-medication. Conclusion: Younger and well-educated adults report using self-medication frequently and rate their expertise as high. Healthcare professionals are the preferred source of information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Self-medication or the use of over-the-counter drugs by the general public, including among professional students, is becoming an increasingly common practice. However, this practice can carry risks if done without adequate knowledge, especially for pharmacist students who will later play a role in providing education related to drug use. Objective: This study aims to identify factors that affect the level of knowledge of pharmacist program students regarding self-medication. Methods: This study was a cross-sectional survey using an online questionnaire, and the recorded data were analyzed using Logistic regression models. In total, 100 (66.7%) of 150 students practised self-medication at least once recently. Results: We observe that female students were more likely to have a higher level of knowledge about self-medication than male students—aOR = 4.52, 95 % CI = 1.41-14.42. Meanwhile, students living alone were less likely to have a higher level of self-medication knowledge than those staying with somebody else —aOR = 0.47, 95 % CI = 0.23-0.97. Conclusion: The effect of students who practised self-medication on a higher level of knowledge about self-medication was significant among students who live with somebody else—aOR =2.85, CI = 1.01-8.01 but not among students who live alone. There are more attempts to educate the students about self-medication and the possible risks of doing self-medication. We suggest a similar study can be observed among students during their bachelor study or in their Professional Program.

Background and Objective: Self-medication (SM) is an emerging practice in both developing and developed countries. The commonality of this behavior is observed in patients with specific environments. The current study endeavored to determine the prevalence of SM practices and their correlated factors among academic employees in Saudi Arabia. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted at King Saud University Hospital, recruiting 383 participants. The participants received an online survey on self-medication practices. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis. Results: In the study, all the participants reported practicing SM at least one time. Of those who practiced SM, 66.7% (102) were unmarried with a significant difference (P = 0.036) while 68.0% (117) had no children (P = 0.003). Non-Government employees and unemployed participants had the highest percentage of experiencing SM (70.5%, n = 31, P = 0.036). Our results reveal that health perceiving, life satisfaction, and religious reasons were not significantly associated with practicing SM with P value = 0.704, 0.535, and 0.482, respectively. In the univariate model, gender, marital status, and the number of children revealed a significant correlation with SM (P value = 0.136, 0.058, and 0.040), respectively. SM was 1.4 times as likely if the participant was female and 1.3 if the participant was unmarried. The multivariate regression model shows that gender and marital status lost their significance while number of children (P = 0.023) was significantly correlated with SM. Our results also show the main reasons for self-medication were prior knowledge (25%), time-consuming consultations (21.6%), the belief that the condition did not require a doctor (22.4%), and previous experience with similar symptoms (23%) while major causative clinical conditions involved in SM is pain (37.5%) and fever (28.4%). It also shows that 33% experienced no side effects and 34% experienced shortness of breath as a side effect of practicing SM. Conclusion: Our study spotted a significant frequency of SM behavior with high prevalence among University employees. Our study shows that gender, marital status, and number of children have a significant correlation with SM. The pharmacist’s role is pivotal in promoting awareness for the safe utilization of over-the-counter drugs, and their proactive engagement is paramount. Educational health programs should be implemented to minimize SM malpractice.

Background & Aims: Self-medication refers to the consumption of medicines to treat self-diagnosed disorders without consulting a medical practitioner. This study was conducted to estimate the prevalence and pattern of self-medication using modern medicines in selected rural and urban areas of the Palakkad district. Materials &Methods: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Ottapalam Municipality and Vaniyamkulam Panchayat of Palakkad district, Kerala, India. Study participants were selected through a multi-stage sampling method. Data were cleaned, coded, and entered into Excel before being exported to the SPSS version 26 for analysis. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, proportions, and summary statistics, were calculated to examine the distribution of independent variables. Chi-square tests were performed to assess associations between demographic factors and self-medication practices. Results: A total of 131 participants were included in the study. The overall prevalence of self-medication was 67.2% (n=88), while 32.8% (n=43) did not practice self-medication. Among those who self-medicated, 88.6% (n=78) cited previous experience as the deciding factor for their self-medication practices. Conclusion: This study revealed a high prevalence of self-medication in the studied population, with previous experience being a major influencing factor. These findings highlight the need for targeted educational interventions and stricter regulation of over-the-counter medications. Future research should explore the potential risks associated with self-medication practices and develop strategies to promote responsible medication use in this region.

The aim of the work is to determine the prevalence of self-medication among young people and their attitude to it, with the further development of recommendations for pharmacists regarding the prevention of negative consequences of self-medication and the improvement of pharmaceutical assistance (educational activities) in matters of responsible self-medication. Materials and methods. The work used methods of information search, survey, critical analysis, generalization, and interpretation of results. The survey took place online from January to May 2024, using the developed questionnaire (the electronic version was created using Google Forms). A total of 207 questionnaires were received from people aged 20–25. Results. Mostly, it is difficult for young people to determine their attitude toward self-medication. During treatment, a large number of research participants use the advice of doctors and pharmacists. 75.8 % of respondents always study the instructions for the medical use of drugs before using them. Basically, young people do not increase the dose of drugs arbitrarily to speed up their recovery. Almost half of them do not change the prescribed medications by the doctor to cheaper analogs. According to the research participants, half of them consider an adequate amount of drugs in the form of two names, and this is confirmed by the fact that 83.6 % of them had cases of simultaneous administration of more than one drug. After undergoing self-treatment, 75.8 % of respondents consider it not always practical, among which 13.5 % indicate that it was necessary to consult a doctor. Conclusions. The prevalence and attitude toward self-medication among young people were studied. The main reasons for self-medication are the difficulty of getting to a doctor’s appointment and lack of time, as well as the reduction of disease symptoms after self-diagnosis and the use of drugs and preventive measures. It should be noted, that 23.2 % of young people nevertheless turned to a doctor after receiving negative manifestations of self-medication, and half of the respondents shared their experience of self-medication. The obtained information can be useful for pharmacy institutions, which can use it to create a comprehensive model of a program for the prevention of negative consequences of self-medication, especially among young people, and increase patients’ commitment to the pharmaceutical enterprise.

Background: Self-medication is a concern at the global level. It comes with complications and different health issues. This study measures the prevalence, influential factors, and reasons behind self-medication. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University. The prevalence and influential factors were measured between September and November 2023. Statistical analysis was performed using RStudio (R version 4.3.1). We used frequencies and percentages to present categorical variables. Using a convenient sampling technique. Factors associated with using self-medication and the differences between students of the medical college and their non-medical counterparts were assessed using Pearson’s Chi-squared test or Fisher’s exact test. Statistical significance was considered at P < 0.05. Result: We initially received 410 responses on the online platform. However, we excluded seven responses from those who disagreed to participate and 12 from participants outside Riyadh. The majority of the participants were female (67.5%). Three hundred nineteen (319) participants indicated that they had ever used self-medications, accounting for a prevalence of 81.6%. Regarding the reasons for self-medication, the most frequently cited factors were ‘previous experience’ (66.5%) and ‘time-saving’ (50.2%). Additionally, the primary source of drug information utilized for self-medication practices was predominantly from ‘relatives/friends’ (62.4%) and ‘pharmacologists’ (48.0%). Medications were primarily used for headache (76.8%), fever (48.6%), and pain (47.3%). The most commonly used classes of drugs used for self-medication were painkillers (84.0%), vitamins (42.0%), and eye drops (32.9%). Conclusion: The results showed that the prevalence of self-medication is high in the surveyed population. There has been an association between monthly income and the prevalence of self-medication. As pharmacists are the second most common source of drug information, it is essential to increase responsibility and avoid marketing and personal benefiting behavior as they are considered a reliable source of information in the population. Healthcare organizers can utilize our study to educate people about the adverse effects of self-medication.

Abstract We analyzed data from positively tested COVID-19 outpatients to describe self-medication with OTC drugs and use of other remedies against symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We specifically considered their type and frequency, as well as associations with patient characteristics, and reasons for use. Data were collected between May 1, 2020 and February 22, 2021 with two questionnaires in an observational cohort study with PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2-positive adult outpatients in the district of Western Pomerania in Germany. 523 out of 710 outpatients (74%; 340 women and 183 men) reported using drugs and other remedies to relieve COVID-19-symptoms. Overall, participants reported utilization of 1282 finished dosage products or remedies, including 213 different ingredients. In the population of 710 outpatients, utilization of ibuprofen (26%), acetaminophen (21%), metamizole (14%), and acetylsalicylic acid (10%) was most commonly reported. Phytopharmaceuticals, herbal and animal products as well as vitamins and minerals were also frequently reported. Among the 523 participants who used drugs and other remedies, most commonly mentioned reasons for use were headache (40%), other kinds of pain (e.g. myalgia; 37%), fever (24%) and cough (16%). Our analysis showed that a majority of the participants tried to alleviate COVID-19-symptoms using drugs and other remedies. Especially analgesic and antipyretic agents, followed by herbal medicines, were used very frequently. Trial registration: German Register for Clinical Studies DRKS00021672, first registration on December 1st, 2020.

Abstract Background Despite their significant contribution to reducing mortality and morbidity from infectious diseases, antibiotics face challenges due to their inappropriate use, one of which is self-medication. This study assessed the prevalence of|| self-medication with antibiotics among Eritrean college students and its associated factors. Methods An analytical cross-sectional study evaluated the prevalence of self-medication with antibiotics among students from five colleges from September 2019 to February 2020. Participants were selected through simple random sampling, and each participant completed a structured questionnaire covering socio-demographic characteristics, knowledge and attitudes toward antibiotics, and self-medication practices. Logistic regression analysis was employed to identify factors associated with self-medication with antibiotics. Results The study distributed 380 questionnaires, with 375 returned, yielding a response rate of 98.68%. Findings revealed that 80.3% of participants were familiar with antibiotics. Additionally, 18.8% agreed with non-prescription antibiotic use for simple ailments. Of the 252 respondents who answered, 67.1% reported self-medication with antibiotics. Within the preceding six months, the prevalence of such self-medication was 34.3%. Factors associated with self-medication included college affiliation, with participants from the College of Science (COS) exhibiting lower odds (AOR = 0.38, 95% CI: 0.16–0.91, p = 0.03) compared to the College of Business and Social Sciences (CBSS) students. Those living in dormitories had 2.4 times higher odds (AOR = 2.42, 95% CI: 1.7–5.02, p = 0.017) to self-medicate compared to those living with family. Moreover, individuals unaware of antibiotic resistance had higher odds (AOR = 2.41, 95% CI: 1.24–4.7, p = 0.009) of self-medication. Attitude score was also significantly associated with self-medication (AOR = 0.88, 95% CI: 0.8–0.98, p = 0.027). Conclusions These results highlight the necessity for tailored educational programs to advocate for appropriate antibiotic utilization and mitigate the prevalent misuse of antibiotics among college students. Initiatives focused on increasing knowledge about the dangers linked with self-medication and advocating for conscientious antibiotic usage are essential in combating the escalating challenge of antibiotic resistance and safeguarding public health.

Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease with a wide range of clinical manifestations. Given the recent worldwide resurgence of syphilis, it is imperative to recognise various presentations of this great imitator. Apart from the classic ulcerative lesion of primary syphilis, known as a hard chancre, atypical presentations mimicking other diseases are also reported. A patient with carcinoma of the lip who was scheduled for surgery was diagnosed with an extragenital chancre during routine presurgery screening, leading to a change in the treatment plan for the patient. Other patients were initially treated for conditions such as scrotal eczema, psoriasis, and herpes before the correct diagnosis was made. Rare presentations, such as pustular lesions, paraphimosis, and cord-like thickening of the penis, were also observed in this case series. It is important to recognise these atypical manifestations, as doing so may facilitate early diagnosis and prompt management. Nine cases of syphilis in patients who exhibited atypical manifestations are presented in this case series and were diagnosed based on a high index of suspicion aided by laboratory confirmation.

Abstract Background Self-medication practices involve the use of medications without healthcare professional requests. The threat of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused the practice of a fittest to survive action, with the assumption that something is better than nothing. Moreover, owing to the lack of effective treatment for COVID-19, the general public has shifted toward self-medication and symptomatic treatment, with approximately 80% of people stockpiling medication for use during the pandemic. Thus, this study aimed to assess the factors associated with self-medication practices during the COVID-19 pandemic crisis in southwestern Ethiopia. Methods A community-based cross-sectional study design was employed at selected drug retail outlets in southwestern Ethiopia for 415 community pharmacy clients from July 1, 2021, to September 1, 2021. Purposive sampling techniques were employed to select five drug retail outlets on the basis of high patient flows, and we took the study participants until the required quota allotted to each selected drug retail outlet had been filled. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were employed to identify factors associated with self-medication. AORs with 95% CIs were used to report associations, and the level of significance was set at P

Background and Aim: Self-medication practices (SMPs) are a common phenomenon prevalent with both prescription and nonprescription medicines. Still, the availability of a valid and reliable instrument to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practices toward self-medication (SM) remains limited. The current pilot study aimed to develop and validate a tool that effectively evaluates these aspects among consumers in Delhi, India. Materials and Methods: The research involved 100 consumer participants from Delhi, India. Reliability and validity testing was conducted to assess reproducibility, internal consistency, and content validity. The questionnaire underwent validation by a panel of five experts to evaluate face and content validity. Results: Test–retest reliability was assessed using Karl Pearson’s correlation co-efficient yielding values of 0.841 (P = 0.002), 0.827 (P = 0.003), and 0.792 (P = 0.006) for the three domains of knowledge, attitude, and frequency of performing SM, respectively. Cronbach’s alpha statistics were used to determine internal consistency, yielding values of 0.775 and 0.839 for knowledge and attitude domains, respectively. The association between the demographic characteristics of respondents and knowledge, attitude, and frequency of SM was assessed using an independent sample t-test and one-way ANOVA, demonstrating satisfactory known group validity. Conclusions: The developed questionnaire proved valid and reliable for determining consumer’s knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward SM. The final tool could be valuable for future research and interventions to improve consumers’ understanding of SMP.

(1) Background: The rise of online health resources and AI has reshaped the diagnosis and treatment of disease, altering the relationship between patients and healthcare professionals and encouraging self-medication. However, questionnaires validated in the literature on self-medication seem to lack questions on the possible causes that induce such behaviors, including items that explore trust toward websites and artificial intelligence. The aim of this study is to design and validate the content of a questionnaire designed to assess self-medication in health professionals, delving into the underlying etiologies, the pharmacological categories involved and the degree of confidence placed in clinical assessments derived from AI tools. (2) Methods: Validation study of the content of an instrument consisting of two phases: 1. The content validation phase involved evaluation by a selected group of health experts, who, using a Likert-type scale, analyzed the clarity, coherence and relevance of the items. 2. Pilot study of health professionals who have indicated the practice of self-administration of medications. (3) Results: In the first phase of the study, the experts considered most of the questionnaire items to be clear, representative and consistent with the construct to be measured. In its second phase, the preliminary results of our pilot study suggest a significant trend toward self-medication among healthcare workers, along with a strong inclination to use online resources to search for health-related information. (4) Conclusions: The development of a validated instrument to measure the influence of the different causes that lead healthcare personnel to practice self-medication, guaranteeing validity and efficacy, allows us to establish strategies to reduce this growing problem.

Background: Community pharmacists are engaged in various professional activities starting from drug dispensing to promoting the well-being of patients. They dispense medications as stated in the prescription and are also licensed to prescribe over-the-counter (OTC) medications. Self-medication is widely practiced in various countries, which may lead to irrational drug use. The objectives of this study were to identify the factors associated with dispensing errors, to find ways to minimize dispensing errors, to identify patients’ reasons for self-medication, and to find the drugs commonly utilized by patients as OTC medications and the sources of their drug information. Methods: A cross-sectional survey of a convenience sample of 286 registered community pharmacists all over Tabuk was conducted using a self-administered questionnaire. Results: Physician’s unclear handwriting in the prescription was the major factor for dispensing error (2.6 out of 3) and writing the prescription clearly by the physician or using a printed form of prescription was an important factor in minimizing dispensing errors (2.91 out of 3). Previous similar complaints in the past were the main reason for self-medication (2.45 out of 3) with analgesics and antipyretics being the commonly dispensed drug groups dispensed as OTC medications (2.95 out of 3). Conclusion: Self-medication practices and dispensing errors are widespread in Tabuk. Antibiotics were dispensed as OTC medication, which may lead to more chance of irrational drug use. Writing the prescription clearly and legibly would reduce dispensing errors. It is the community pharmacists’ responsibility to increase awareness regarding the appropriate use of drugs to the public.

Abstract Introduction Self-medication was remarkably popular during the COVID-19 pandemic. In older populations, the risk of self-medication is higher. Pharmacists are well positioned to provide public health education and disease prevention. This study aims to explore the self-medication patterns and intention to seek pharmacist guidance among older adults in Macao. Methods A face-to-face cross-sectional survey was subsequently performed in March-April 2023 among older adults in Macao. The questionnaire was designed based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) framework. Multiple logistic regression was used to analyze predictors of self-medication behavior and multiple linear regression analysis to determine whether the TPB construct was the predictor of older adults’ intention to seek guidance from pharmacists. Results A total of 412 participants completed the questionnaire. The self-medication rate among older adults in Macao was 64.2%. The most commonly used types of medications were over-the-counter and traditional Chinese medicine, mainly from government anti-pandemic packages. The majority of individuals engaged in self-medication to treat COVID-19 symptoms or prevent COVID-19 infection. The prevalent reasons for self-medication were the perceived non-seriousness of the illness. 85 years old or older and university degree were significantly associated with self-medication behavior. Older adults had moderate intention to seek pharmacist guidance on medication use. The average scores (standard deviation) were 3.43 (1.10) for Attitude, 2.69 (0.99) for Subjective Norm, 3.56 (1.04) for Perceived Behavioral Control, and 3.07 (1.43) for Intention. Attitude, Subjective Norm, and Perceived Behavioral Control were all strong predictors of intention, which explained 53% of the variance in intention. In demographic factors, age was identified as a significant predictor of intentions. Conclusions Self-medication was widely practiced in Macao during the COVID-19 pandemic. To better control the risks associated with self-medication, the role of pharmacists is paramount. Enhancing the recognition and trust of pharmacists within society, modifying pharmacy management models, and strengthening pharmacists’ self-perception of their profession are all pivotal directions areas to further enhance their role.

Healthy reading habits can improve concentration, critical thinking, information retention, and educational success skills. However, the lack of it among university students often leads to immense academic demands and pressures, particularly during examinations. This could result in self-medication and nonmedical use of drugs to cope with pressure and could negatively affect their physical and mental health, well-being, as well as academic performance. There is also the risk of the long-term effects of medication dependence, addiction, and decreased cognitive function. Therefore, establishing healthy reading habits is essential to student self-care and holistic well-being. This study used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), guidelines, and protocols to review published data between 2010 and 2024 from Sage Journals, African Journal Online, ProQuest Dissertations, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Twelve selected articles were thematically analysed, and social cognitive theoretical lenses guided interpretation and analysis. The review revealed the prevalence of medication misuse among university students, risk factors for drug misuse, interventions to reduce medication misuse, and the role of policymaking in supporting drug misuse among university students. Based on the findings, recommendations were made to address self-medication and promote healthy reading habits and students’ well-being.

Background Antimicrobial resistance is increasing at an alarming rate. The use of antibiotics without a prescription by a patient or other family members and their inappropriate storage have caused serious health issues as it would lead to antibiotic resistance and exposure to the risk of harmful adverse effects unnecessarily. Therefore, the study aimed to evaluate the current behaviour of antibiotic usage, storage, re-usage and misuse among the residents of Saudi Arabia. Methods This is a cross-sectional study. Our target study population was the residents of Saudi Arabia. Data were collected by an online questionnaire and analysed by SPSS. Results A total of 738 participants answered the online questionnaire from all ages, genders, nationalities, and socioeconomic backgrounds residing in different regions across the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 76.42% knew that an antibiotic is a chemical substance used to treat infections. The participants were questioned about when they started using antibiotics, to which 95.66% (n=706) responded after consulting a physician, 3.25% (n=24) said when they felt ill for any reason, and 1.08% (n=8) replied after first attempting herbal medicine. A total of 147 participants admitted that they store excess pills of antibiotics after being prescribed for an infection and reuse them later on for symptoms like sore throat and fever. Conclusions The results indicated that nearly half of the participants used leftover antibiotics. Participants having children in their homes significantly reuse antibiotics. However, one-third of the participants didn’t complete the antibiotics course. A large portion of the population, regardless of age, level of education, or professional background, have continued to store leftover antibiotics after an infection treatment and reuse them once they think they need them for new symptoms. This advice further revises the current measures to fill those gaps and reduce this habit.

The objective of this study was to investigate self-medication behavior among Chinese adolescents aged 12–18 years and explore the factors associated with whether adolescents prioritize drug efficacy or safety when engaging in self-medication behavior. In 2021, a questionnaire investigation was conducted in the Chinese mainland using a multi-stage sampling approach. After a statistical description, logistic regression was used to analyze the factors associated with considering drug efficacy and safety. The self-medication rate among Chinese adolescents aged 12–18 years was 96.61%. Of these, 65.84% considered drug safety to be essential, while 58.72% prioritized drug efficacy. Regression analysis showed that individuals with better healthcare were more likely to consider drug efficacy an important factor. Additionally, those with a healthier family lifestyle were more likely to prioritize efficacy. When individuals engage in self-medication, those residing in urban areas and possessing advanced preventive health literacy and ample family health resources tend to prioritize drug safety to a greater extent. Conversely, those with higher monthly household incomes and only children exhibit a decreased inclination towards prioritizing safety during self-medication. Self-medication is a frequently observed practice among Chinese adolescents aged 12–18. Several factors, such as demographic and sociological characteristics, health literacy, and family health status, have been found to be associated with the extent to which adolescents prioritize medication safety and efficacy when engaging in self-medication practices. Higher levels of health literacy and better family health status were positively correlated with considering both the efficacy and safety of drugs as important factors when self-medicating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyzed data from positively tested COVID-19 outpatients to describe self-medication with OTC drugs and use of other remedies against symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We specifically considered their type and frequency, as well as associations with patient characteristics, and reasons for use. Data were collected between May 1, 2020 and February 22, 2021 with two questionnaires in an observational cohort study with PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2-positive adult outpatients in the district of Western Pomerania in Germany. 523 out of 710 outpatients (74%; 340 women and 183 men) reported using drugs and other remedies to relieve COVID-19-symptoms. Overall, participants reported utilization of 1282 finished dosage products or remedies, including 213 different ingredients. In the population of 710 outpatients, utilization of ibuprofen (26%), acetaminophen (21%), metamizole (14%), and acetylsalicylic acid (10%) was most commonly reported. Phytopharmaceuticals, herbal and animal products as well as vitamins and minerals were also frequently reported. Among the 523 participants who used drugs and other remedies, most commonly mentioned reasons for use were headache (40%), other kinds of pain (e.g. myalgia; 37%), fever (24%) and cough (16%). Our analysis showed that a majority of the participants tried to alleviate COVID-19-symptoms using drugs and other remedies. Especially analgesic and antipyretic agents, followed by herbal medicines, were used very frequently. Trial registration: German Register for Clinical Studies DRKS00021672, first registration on December 1st, 2020. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Self-medication practices involve the use of medications without healthcare professional requests. The threat of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused the practice of a fittest to survive action, with the assumption that something is better than nothing. Moreover, owing to the lack of effective treatment for COVID-19, the general public has shifted toward self-medication and symptomatic treatment, with approximately 80% of people stockpiling medication for use during the pandemic. Thus, this study aimed to assess the factors associated with self-medication practices during the COVID-19 pandemic crisis in southwestern Ethiopia. Methods: A community-based cross-sectional study design was employed at selected drug retail outlets in southwestern Ethiopia for 415 community pharmacy clients from July 1, 2021, to September 1, 2021. Purposive sampling techniques were employed to select five drug retail outlets on the basis of high patient flows, and we took the study participants until the required quota allotted to each selected drug retail outlet had been filled. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were employed to identify factors associated with self-medication. AORs with 95% CIs were used to report associations, and the level of significance was set at P < 0.05. Results: Self-medication was significantly associated with being female (AOR 3.51, 95% CI 1.04–12.41), having a college education or above (AOR 47, 95% CI 4.32–55.21), time wastage at public health facilities (AOR 2.71, 95% CI 3.47–5.21), being afraid of contracting COVID-19 (AOR 0.006, 95% CI 0.004–0.185), and having high fees at public health facility (AOR 0.006, 95% CI 0.004–0.185). The most frequently used medications to treat or prevent the COVID-19 pandemic were analgesics (42.4%) and cold medicines (29.5%). Headache (22.2%), fever (13.2%), respiratory infection (14.3%), and cold (21.4%) were the most frequently reported symptoms of the COVID-19 pandemic. Conclusion: This study revealed high self-medication practices among study area residents during the COVID-19 pandemic. The primary reasons for self-medication in the context of COVID-19 are fear of the pandemic and time wastage at public health facilities. Therefore, special attention should be given to educating public and health care providers on the types of illnesses that can be self-diagnosed and self-treated and the types of drugs to be used for self-medication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Background: Self-medication is a concern at the global level. It comes with complications and different health issues. This study measures the prevalence, influential factors, and reasons behind self-medication. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University. The prevalence and influential factors were measured between September and November 2023. Statistical analysis was performed using RStudio (R version 4.3.1). We used frequencies and percentages to present categorical variables. Using a convenient sampling technique. Factors associated with using self-medication and the differences between students of the medical college and their non-medical counterparts were assessed using Pearson's Chi-squared test or Fisher's exact test. Statistical significance was considered at P < 0.05. Result: We initially received 410 responses on the online platform. However, we excluded seven responses from those who disagreed to participate and 12 from participants outside Riyadh. The majority of the participants were female (67.5%). Three hundred nineteen (319) participants indicated that they had ever used self-medications, accounting for a prevalence of 81.6%. Regarding the reasons for self-medication, the most frequently cited factors were 'previous experience' (66.5%) and 'time-saving' (50.2%). Additionally, the primary source of drug information utilized for self-medication practices was predominantly from 'relatives/friends' (62.4%) and 'pharmacologists' (48.0%). Medications were primarily used for headache (76.8%), fever (48.6%), and pain (47.3%). The most commonly used classes of drugs used for self-medication were painkillers (84.0%), vitamins (42.0%), and eye drops (32.9%). Conclusion: The results showed that the prevalence of self-medication is high in the surveyed population. There has been an association between monthly income and the prevalence of self-medication. As pharmacists are the second most common source of drug information, it is essential to increase responsibility and avoid marketing and personal benefiting behavior as they are considered a reliable source of information in the population. Healthcare organizers can utilize our study to educate people about the adverse effects of self-medication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease with a wide range of clinical manifestations. Given the recent worldwide resurgence of syphilis, it is imperative to recognise various presentations of this great imitator. Apart from the classic ulcerative lesion of primary syphilis, known as a hard chancre, atypical presentations mimicking other diseases are also reported. A patient with carcinoma of the lip who was scheduled for surgery was diagnosed with an extragenital chancre during routine presurgery screening, leading to a change in the treatment plan for the patient. Other patients were initially treated for conditions such as scrotal eczema, psoriasis, and herpes before the correct diagnosis was made. Rare presentations, such as pustular lesions, paraphimosis, and cord-like thickening of the penis, were also observed in this case series. It is important to recognise these atypical manifestations, as doing so may facilitate early diagnosis and prompt management. Nine cases of syphilis in patients who exhibited atypical manifestations are presented in this case series and were diagnosed based on a high index of suspicion aided by laboratory confirmation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To determine the prevalence and factors associated with self-medication among students with medical and non-medical backgrounds in Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Study Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: Medical and Non-medical Universities of Peshawar. Period: May to October 2022. Methods: For this comparative analysis, sample size was calculated based on the formula of Cochran, taking a 95% confidence level with 5% precision. The sampling was conducted using a non-probability convenience approach. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire and analyzed with the help of SPSS v.25. Results: A study sample of 427 participants with a 95% response yielded 212 medical students and 215 non-medical students. The prevalence of self-medication among medical and non-medical students was 35.36% and 39.35%, respectively. The occurrence of self-medication was reported as 7% daily, 11% weekly, 11% fortnightly, and 71% monthly. Among the reasons for self-medication, headache was the most common (49.65%), followed by cough/sore throat/cold (31.85%), fever (26.46%), generalized body aches (17.56%), heartburn/indigestion (14.75%), nausea/vomiting (9.36%), constipation (4.91%), anxiety/depression (4.68%), and insomnia (3.51%), while 8.89% constitutes other factors like allergies, skin rashes, and weight loss. The main reason for self-medication was the mild nature of the illness, which accounted for 31.85% of cases. Conclusion: The study indicated a considerable number of student population involved in self-medication practices. The prevalence of this behavior was slightly more common among non-medical students than medical students. Various factors contributed to self-medication ranging from physical symptoms to mental health issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some studies have reported that community pharmacies in developing countries, including Indonesia, provided sub-optimal advice when handling patient's self-medication request for cough. The reasons behind such advice, therefore, need to be investigated. To describe Indonesian pharmacists' clinical decision making when handling self-medication cases for a cough. An open-ended questionnaire consisting of two cough clinical vignettes (case 1: cough due to asthma worsening and case 2: cough as a symptom of common cold) were developed. Pharmacists were interviewed to provide recommendations and reasons for their recommendations for these scenarios. Content analysis was used to analyse participants' statements for the two scenarios. The number of participants who provided appropriate recommendations and reasons were then counted. A total of 245 community pharmacists participated in the study. In the case of cough due to asthma worsening, recommending a product because the product was indicated to help with the symptoms was the most common recommendation and stated reason (40%). Appropriate recommendation (direct medical referral) with appropriate reasoning (indicating warning symptoms and/or making a symptom diagnosis) was provided by 25% participants. In the case of cough as a symptom of common cold, recommending products to help with the symptoms was also the most common recommendation and stated reason (53%). Appropriate recommendations (recommending product) with appropriate reasoning (providing product to treat the symptoms and/or indicating no warning symptoms and/or making a symptom diagnosis) was provided by 81% participants. The ability of Indonesian community pharmacists to provide appropriate recommendations for cough self-medication requests is dependent on whether triage is required. The inability of most community pharmacists to differentiate between major and minor conditions may lead to serious health implications for patients and therefore educational interventions should be undertaken to improve community pharmacists' differential diagnostic skills for triage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted healthcare-seeking behaviours and self-medication practices worldwide. This study aims to evaluate changes in healthcare-seeking and self-medication trends among individuals visiting the outpatient department of a tertiary care hospital, before and during the pandemic. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted involving 400 adults who visited the outpatient department from January to March 2022. Data were collected using a semi-structured, pre-tested, and validated questionnaire covering socio-demographic details, pre-existing conditions, healthcare-seeking behaviours, and self-medication practices. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 25, with significance set at p < 0.05. Results: The mean age of participants was 38.9 ± 18.8 years. Before the pandemic, 59% of participants engaged in self-medication. During the pandemic, 66% continued self-medicating, with 35% using medications for COVID-19 symptoms and 49% for prevention. A shift in healthcare facility usage was observed, with 50% opting for government facilities and increased use of teleconsultations. Delays in seeking medical care were more common among older adults and those with pre-existing conditions. The study found significant associations between demographic factors and self-medication practices, with younger individuals more likely to self-medicate for COVID-19 symptoms and older individuals more focused on preventive measures. Conclusion: The COVID-19 pandemic led to notable changes in healthcare-seeking and self-medication practices, including increased reliance on government facilities and alternative healthcare methods. Delays in care were significantly associated with age and pre-existing conditions. The findings underscore the need for targeted interventions to address self-medication and improve access to healthcare services during public health crises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aim: Self‐medication is a common practice worldwide, and its prevalence ranges between 20% and 80% among patients suffering from dental pain. The socioeconomic status of an individual plays a key role in self‐medication practice, especially sex and education level. This study aims to investigate the extent of self‐medication practice for toothache due to dental caries among adults in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Methods: This was an analytical cross‐sectional study carried out over 6 months. It included adult patients presenting with toothache in public dental clinics. A questionnaire captured information on demography, self‐medication practice, the substance used for self‐medication, duration of self‐medication, and reason for self‐medication. Univariate analysis was carried out to assess factors associated with self‐care remedies. The probability level of α < 0.05 was selected for statistical significance. Results: A total of 420 participants took part in this survey with a majority (54.3%) being females. The ages of the participants ranged between 18 years and 79 years, with a mean age of 33.37 (SD = 12.64) years. Nearly all (98.5%) participants used some sort of self‐prescribed remedies for managing toothache before attending a dental clinic for appropriate treatment. The sociodemographic status of the participants did not influence the practice of self‐medication. Conclusion: About 98% of patients suffering from toothache in Tanzania practice self‐medication, and it cuts across all social strata of the adult dental population Patient or Public Contribution: Patients with toothache secondary to dental caries participated in the pilot study and were consulted on the suitability of the study tool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-medication (SM) forms an important part of public health strategy. Nonetheless, little research has been performed to understand the current state of self-medication in the European Union (EU). Utilizing data from the third wave of the European Health Interview Surveys, this study finds an estimated SM prevalence of 34.3% in the EU (95%CI = 34.1-34.5%; n = 255,758). SM prevalence, as well as SM prevalence inequality between men and women, varies substantially between EU member countries. Via multivariable analysis, we also identify a number of variables associated with SM, most notably the substantial impact of health systems on SM behavior (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 4.00; 95% Confidence Interval [95%CI] = 3.81–4.21). Several demographics are also associated with greater SM prevalence, including those aged 25–44 (versus ages 75+: AOR = 1.21; 95%CI = 1.12–1.31), women (AOR = 1.74; 95%CI = 1.68–1.81), immigrants born in other EU states (AOR = 1.16; 95%CI = 1.04–1.30), those with higher education (AOR = 1.83; 95%CI = 1.60–2.09), and urban dwellers (AOR = 1.14; 95%CI = 1.04–1.30). Additionally, long-standing health problems (AOR = 1.39; 95%CI = 1.33–1.45), visits to doctors (both general practitioners and specialists) (AOR = 1.21, 95%CIs = 1.15–1.26, 1.17–1.26), and unmet needs for health care due to waiting lists (AOR = 1.38; 95%CI = 1.23–1.55) or inability to afford medical examinations/treatment (AOR = 1.27; 95%CI = 1.12–1.42) serve as conditioners for SM. We also find that smoking (AOR = 1.05; 95%CI = 1.01–1.10), vaping (AOR = 1.19; 95%CI = 1.06–1.32), drinking alcohol (AOR = 1.23; 95%CI = 1.19–1.28), and higher levels of physical activity (AOR = 1.27; 95%CI = 1.22–1.32) are factors associated with SM. Analysis of these variables reveals that though women self-medicate more than men, the patterns that govern their consumption are similar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Background: The rise of online health resources and AI has reshaped the diagnosis and treatment of disease, altering the relationship between patients and healthcare professionals and encouraging self-medication. However, questionnaires validated in the literature on self-medication seem to lack questions on the possible causes that induce such behaviors, including items that explore trust toward websites and artificial intelligence. The aim of this study is to design and validate the content of a questionnaire designed to assess self-medication in health professionals, delving into the underlying etiologies, the pharmacological categories involved and the degree of confidence placed in clinical assessments derived from AI tools. (2) Methods: Validation study of the content of an instrument consisting of two phases: 1. The content validation phase involved evaluation by a selected group of health experts, who, using a Likert-type scale, analyzed the clarity, coherence and relevance of the items. 2. Pilot study of health professionals who have indicated the practice of self-administration of medications. (3) Results: In the first phase of the study, the experts considered most of the questionnaire items to be clear, representative and consistent with the construct to be measured. In its second phase, the preliminary results of our pilot study suggest a significant trend toward self-medication among healthcare workers, along with a strong inclination to use online resources to search for health-related information. (4) Conclusions: The development of a validated instrument to measure the influence of the different causes that lead healthcare personnel to practice self-medication, guaranteeing validity and efficacy, allows us to establish strategies to reduce this growing problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: In Poland, the area of self-medication requires scientific and organizational evaluation. So far, no solutions sanctioning self-medication have been introduced. Therefore, the aim of this study was to recognize and analyze the practical experience of outpatient physicians regarding self-medication of their patients, as well as self-medication of children by their caregivers. Methods: This study enrolled 386 participants and used a Computer-Assisted Web Interview thatwas disseminated online from4th of July 2023 to 23rd of August 2023. The survey was addressed to outpatient healthcare physicians working in Poland. Results: In doctors' perspective the main three reasons for choosing selfmedication in Poland were: taking advice from other people - family members or friends (59.1%), finding information regarding treatment online (52.9%) and ability to self-medicate in this kind of symptoms/disease (51.6%). Among adult patients, in 72.1% of cases, an independent decision to start antibiotic therapy was made. Such a decision occurred in 39.8% of pediatric patients. Children caregivers were more likely to visit the physician immediately with symptoms than in the case of adult patients (42.2% vs. 22.1%, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Self-medication in Poland requires educational and organizational support at various levels - both social (information campaigns, school education), the healthcare system (increasing the role of medical professionals, including pharmacists), and finally in the area of legislation. Two areas seem to be particularly alarming - the use of antibiotics by adults and children and the mental health of both populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Sexual victimization (SV) is common among college women, with approximately half of those who have experienced SV meeting criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) within a year. Both SV and PTSD are associated with alcohol misuse among college women, often explained by the self-medication hypothesis. Existing literature focuses on overall PTSD severity rather than potential day-to-day fluctuations in specific symptoms, which might play a crucial role in understanding alcohol misuse risk. Studies also examine only same-day or next-day associations between PTSD and drinking, neglecting the potential for longer-term changes. Methods: This study explores the short-term longitudinal stability and timelagged predictive dynamics of PTSD symptoms, affect, and drinking behavior among 174 female college heavy episodic drinkers over four weeks. Participants were categorized into three groups: those with a history of SV and PTSD (n = 77), women with SV but without PTSD (n = 59), and women without prior trauma history (n = 38) to be able to examine differences by trauma exposure, and PTSD. We compared the longitudinal stability of PTSD symptom networks, affect (arousal, positive affect, and negative affect), and drinking behavior across groups. Support vector regression determined which PTSD symptom networks and affect best predict drinking behavior at specific time lags within a 0-7 day range. Results: The PTSD group showed higher longitudinal stability for PTSD symptom networks (adjusted ps <.049) and arousal (adjusted ps <.048), but lower stability for negative affect (adjusted p =.013) and drinking behavior, including alcohol cravings (adjusted p =.019) and consumption (adjusted ps =.012), compared to the comparison groups. This suggests individuals with PTSD have more stable symptoms and arousal levels but greater fluctuations in negative affect and alcohol-related behaviors. Secondary analysis revealed PTSD symptom networks optimally predicted alcohol cravings with a three-day time lag (r=.88, p <.001) and consumption with a four-day time lag (r=.82, p <.001). Discussion: These findings challenge assumptions regarding immediate effects of PTSD and affect on drinking behavior and underscore the need for therapeutic approaches that consider longer-range effects. Future research should expand on these findings by incorporating longer-range assessments and exploring a broader range of symptom interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. This study aimed to determine which pedagogic method, online workshops or live medical education, was the better way to teach about self-medication for middle school students. Methods. The following groups were formed: group O (students receiving online education), group L (students participating in live medical education animated by a medical practitioner and a science teacher) and group C (students without any medical learning). To compare them, the students answered three multiple choice questions before and after the educational intervention. The students in group L were evaluated immediately after the live medical training and group O immediately after the online workshops (t1). Group C was only evaluated at t0. Results. Group C N=195), group L (N=219) and group O (N=200, but 101 students who participated in the online workshops students dropped out before the end) were equivalent in terms of gender, but their ages and school grades were statistically different (P<0.001). A post-hoc test revealed that students in group O were older and in a higher grade than those in the other two groups (P<0.001) but the mean ages and school grades were equivalent in group L and group C. At t0, the results obtained were equivalent in the 3 groups. At t1, school students obtained better results in both groups (P<0.001) but these same results were significantly better in group L than those obtained in group O (P<0.001). Age, gender, school grade and school level had no effect on the students' results. Conclusion: The study's findings suggest that live medical education is a superior approach for imparting self-medication knowledge to middle school students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Many children in sub‐Saharan Africa die from infectious diseases like malaria, pneumonia, and diarrhoea that can be prevented by early diagnosis, effective and targeted treatment. This study aimed to gain insights into case management practices by parents before they present their children to hospital. Methods: We conducted a cross‐sectional study among 332 parents attending a district hospital with their under‐fives symptomatic with fever and/or diarrhoea between November 2019 and July 2020 in rural Tanzania. Timely and targeted treatment was defined as seeking health care within 24 h of fever onset, and continued fluid intake in case of diarrhoea. Results: The main admission diagnoses were acute respiratory infections (61.8%), malaria (25.3%), diarrhoea (18.4%) and suspected sepsis (8.1%). The majority of children (91%) received treatment prior to admission, mostly antipyretics (75.6%), local herbal medicines (26.8%), and antibiotics (17.8%)—half of them without prescription from a clinician. For diarrhoea, the use of oral rehydration solution was rare (9.0%), although perceived as easily accessible and affordable. 49.4% of the parents presented their children directly to the hospital, 23.2% went to a pharmacy/drug shop and 19.3% to a primary health facility first. Malaria symptoms began mostly 3 days before the hospital visit; only 25.4% of febrile children visited any health facility within 24 h of disease onset. Prior use of local herbal medicine (AOR = 3.2; 95% CI 1.4–7.3), visiting the pharmacy (adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 3.1; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.0–9.8), the dispensary being the nearest health facility (AOR = 3.0; 95% CI: 1.5–6.2), and financial difficulties (AOR = 2.2; 95% CI 1.1–4.5) were associated with delayed treatment. Conclusion: This study suggests that antipyretics and antibiotics dispensed at pharmacies/drug shops, as well as use of local herbal medicines, delay early diagnosis and treatment, which can be life‐threatening. Pharmacies/drug shops could be integrated as key focal points for sensitising community members on how to respond to paediatric illnesses and encourage the use of oral rehydration solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]