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Accurate spatial distribution of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is essential information needed to peaking emissions and achieving carbon neutral in China. The aim of this study was to map CO2 emissions with high spatial resolution at provincial scale and then explore the scale effect on mapping results. As an example, the spatiotemporal pattern and factors influencing CO2 emissions were examined in Guizhou Province in Western China. With the proposed method, a reasonable spatial distribution of CO2 emissions with high spatial resolution was obtained, which had relatively accurate information on spatial details. The optimal resolution of CO2 emissions at the provincial scale under high spatial resolution was approximately 90 m and 1260 m. More detailed grid data can better reflect the spatial variability of CO2 emissions. Emissions of CO2 were spatially heterogeneous in Guizhou, with high emissions in centers of big cities that gradually spread and decreased from city centers. From 2009 to 2019, the spatial distribution of CO2 emissions developed from agglomeration to dispersion. Areas of high carbon emissions decreased, those of medium carbon emissions increased, and many areas changed from no emissions to carbon emissions. Industrial land had the highest emissions, followed by commercial and transportation lands. Over 10 years, changes occurred in the relation between interregional economic level of Guizhou and CO2 emissions, with the relation changing from linear into an inverted U-shaped relation. The effect of industrial structure on CO2 emissions decreased, and the linear increase between CO2 emissions and the urban scale became more evident. The results of this study will contribute to accurate monitoring and management of carbon emissions in Guizhou, as well as provide support to formulate policies related to controls on carbon emissions in different regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The scale effect is an inevitable engineering challenge in dam construction, and the scale test is an effective means to characterize the dam material properties. In this article, the scale effect of the large coarse-grained soil is investigated based on physical and numerical tests. Firstly, the indoor and field compression test apparatuses are optimized to rectify the effect of barrel sidewall friction on the compressibility modulus during the tests. Then, the sample preparation standard for different scaled samples is determined by large-scale relative density tests in the field. Finally, based on indoor and field large-scale compression tests, the variation of the scale effect is investigated, and the particle crushing characteristics of the continuously graded aggregate sample are analyzed. The crushing characteristics of the continuously graded aggregate sample differ from those of the single-particle and the single size-group aggregate sample (a small range of particle sizes). Compression tests of the single-particle, single size-group aggregate, and continuously graded aggregate sample are characterized by overall splitting, overall splitting and local crushing, and local or angular crushing, respectively. The coordination number is the main reason for the difference in crushing characteristics of different test samples. The relationship between different particle sizes and strengths of continuously graded aggregate sample is investigated. The results of the study can provide a reference for recognizing the scale effect of large coarse-grained soils and evaluating compaction quality in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the development of a 3D adaptive probabilistic explicit cracking model for concrete is reported. The contribution offered herein consists in a new adaptive mesh strategy designed to optimize the use of interface elements in probabilistic explicit cracking models. The proposed adaptive mesh procedure is markedly different from other strategies found in the literature, since it takes into account possible influences on the redistribution of stresses after cracking and can also be applied to purely deterministic cracking models. The process of obtaining the most appropriate adaptive mesh procedure involved the development and evaluation of three different adaptivity strategies. Two of these adaptivity strategies were shown to be inappropriate due to issues related to stress redistribution after cracking. The validation results demonstrate that the developed adaptive probabilistic model is capable of predicting the scale effect at a level similar to that experimentally observed, considering the tensile failure of plain concrete specimens. The results also show that different softening levels can be obtained. The proposed adaptive mesh strategy proved to be advantageous, being able to promote significant reductions in the simulation time in comparison with the classical strategy commonly used in probabilistic explicit cracking models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates potential differences between creep and consolidation in mechanised tunnelling through squeezing ground, placing focus on the practical question of using experiences gained from existing tunnels about the required thrust force as a reference for tunnels of different diameter or adjacent tunnels. The investigations focus on two aspects. First, the effect of the tunnel diameter on the risk of shield jamming is examined. The paper demonstrates that larger-diameter tunnels are more favourable in poor-quality ground, while the opposite holds in better-quality ground, as well as in the case of pronouncedly time-dependent ground behaviour due to consolidation or creep. Second, the effect of a tunnel on the required thrust force in a neighbouring tunnel built later is examined. The paper shows that this interaction effect is particularly important in water-bearing ground of low permeability, where the drainage action of the first tunnel induces pore pressure relief and ground consolidation in an extensive area, leading to a remarkable reduction of the thrust force in the second tunnel. Conversely, in the case of creep the interaction is negligible even under extremely squeezing conditions, due to the fundamentally different nature of the purely mechanical rheological processes from coupled hydromechanical processes. The presented investigations into the transferability of experiences are valuable for tunnelling practice, in cases of twin tunnels as well as in situations where a smaller-diameter tunnel is constructed prior to the main tunnel (e.g. a pilot tunnel for exploration, advance drainage or ground improvement), or also the opposite (e.g. upgrade of a road tunnel by later construction of a safety tunnel with a smaller diameter). Highlights: The rate of ground deformations is independent of diameter in the case of creep, but extremely increases with decreasing diameter in the case of consolidation. The risk of shield jamming is lower in larger-diameter tunnels crossing poor-quality ground without pronounced time-dependent behaviour. The risk of shield jamming is lower in smaller-diameter tunnels crossing ground of higher quality or exhibiting pronounced time-dependent behaviour. The effect of adjacent tunnel on shield jamming risk is generally minor in the case of creep, even for extreme squeezing conditions and large overcuts. The effect of adjacent tunnel on shield jamming risk is remarkable in the case of consolidation, leading to a substantial reduction of the thrust force. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Objective] The aims of this study are to explore the scale effect in the process of runoff and sediment movement on the slope, to clarify the scale effect influence mechanism of runoff and sediment movement in the hilly and gully region of the Loess Plateau, so as to provide scientific support for the study of runoff and sediment transfer mechanism and the comprehensive management of runoff and sediment in the Yellow River Basin. [Methods] Based on the runoff and sediment data of four runoff fields in Zizhou runoff test station of the Yellow River, the scale transfer effect of runoff and sediment yield on slope was revealed by comparing and analyzing the runoff and sediment yield processes of different slope lengths under rainfall events. The concept of scale transfer efficiency was proposed to characterize the runoff and sediment transfer relationship between the upper and lower levels, and to further explore the influencing factors on runoff and sediment transfer efficiency. [Results] (1) The characteristics of different rainfall types had different effects on the runoff and sediment yield on the slope. The rainfall duration mainly affected the runoff and sediment yield on the slope, and the average rainfall intensity mainly affected the starting time of runoff and sediment yield on the slope. (2) Under the event of rainfall, the runoff transfer of different slope lengths was an ideal equilibrium transfer mechanism, and with the increase of slope length, the transfer capacity of runoff showed a decreasing trend. Under the condition of 40~60m slope length, the transfer of sediment was a non- equilibrium transfer process. With the increase of slope length, the transfer capacity of sediment increased first and then decreased. (3) The influencing factors on flow-sediment transfer efficiency on different scale slopes were different. Runoff depth, average rainfall intensity and surface soil moisture content after rain were the main factors affecting the transfer efficiency of flow-sediment scale. [Conclusion] The runoff and sediment yield capacity of the slope in the loess hilly and gully region is affected by rainfall characteristics and slope length. There is a significant scale effect of damage or gain in the transmission of runoff and sediment along the way. The efficiency of water and sediment transport is regulated by multiple factors such as rainfall intensity, runoff and soil moisture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many existing efforts have taken advantage of large-scale spatial-temporal data to partition cities via constructed human interaction networks. However, few studies focus on communities emerging between adjacent cities in big urban agglomerations, which we call "cross-city" communities. In this study, we introduce a novel framework to detect cross-city communities in urban agglomerations under different scales leveraging a large number of fine-grained mobile signaling data aiming to break the original administrative boundaries. Taking the Pearl River Delta (PRD) urban agglomeration in China as study area, we investigate the existence of potential communities at three scales, i.e. city-group level, city level and sub-city level. The partition results are expected to benefit transportation planning, urban zoning and administrative boundary re-delineation. The results from our study highlight the necessity of considering cross-city communities and their scale effects when examining urban spatial interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A fundamental challenge in geospatial data science is to determine how a property, or its characterization, changes with a change in the scale of measurement. Except for geostatistical regularization of the variogram, which is theoretically well established, the scaling behaviors of a wide range of alternative measures of spatial association remain unclear. This limits the ability to make inferences at scales beyond the scale of measurement. The scaling behavior of the recently introduced entropogram function also remains unclear. Because the entropogram is essentially the generalization of the variogram to categorical spatial variables, the possibility to derive a scaling model for the entropogram exists. Here, the scaling behavior of the entropogram based on the scale effect of Shannon entropy is derived, providing a theoretical basis for the regularization of the entropogram. To validate the developed regularization model for the entropogram, a series of multiscale data was generated. Both theoretical derivation and experimental results showed that the entropogram is scale-invariant, under certain conditions for the generation of the categorical data. This research, thus, generalizes the entropogram to changes in measurement scale, thereby increasing our ability to characterize spatial data and make inferences about the underlying dynamic process. It also provides a reference for the interactions between patterns and processes at different scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research is to explore the scale effect on the mechanical properties of sheet‐based triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) uniform lattice structures fabricated with PLA (polylactic acid) under quasi‐static loading conditions. The scale dependency was evaluated by two additional breakdown categories, namely, wall thickness effect and unit cell size effect. Deformation mechanisms and failure modes as well as mechanical properties including stiffness, yield strength, first peak stress, and energy absorption based on the categories of wall thickness, unit cell size, and scale were evaluated experimentally. The assessment of the scale effect involved considering the combined influence of wall thickness and unit cell size. In addition, numerical analysis was also performed to investigate the stress distributions and compare with the experimental results for certain geometries. Ultimately, the relation between the normalized mechanical properties and relative density is evaluated and categorized, which can be used as an indication for future design practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Preventing eutrophication requires a deep understanding of nutrient sources and migration processes. The Guanshan River in the Danjiangkou Reservoir was selected as a typical agricultural basin. River water, sediment, and soil samples were collected to determine nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) contents and forms. Multivariate statistical analysis, buffer analysis, and extreme gradient boosting regression (XGBoost) were used to investigate the nutrient sources, the sources' scale effects, and migration. The results showed that the exogenous sources of river nutrients were fertilizer (provided phosphate (PO4-P) and ammonium (NH4-N)), domestic wastewater (provided nitrate (NO3-N) and organic nitrogen), and natural soil and rock leaching (provided PO4-P and organic phosphorus). Fertilization within 300–1200 m and domestic wastewater discharge within 150 m of the river affected the contents of the river nutrients significantly (with R ranging between 0.40 and 0.73, p ≤ 0.01). The sediment was the N source and P sink of the overlying water. With NH4-N/PO4-P compound fertilization, the NO3-N and calcium-bound phosphorus (Ca-P) exhibited co-enrichment. Appropriately increasing NH4-N application could stimulate P biological uptake, thus inhibiting P emigration from agricultural soil under N-limited states. In conclusion, this study effectively recognized river nutrient sources and their scale impacts and also explored more effective fertilization strategies, which are beneficial for the optimized management of agricultural activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate how the decomposing scale effect, technique effect and composition effect of foreign direct investment (FDI) impact on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions for 115 nations spanning 1999 to 2019 by employing Generalised Method of Moments (GMM) model. The results indicated that FDI, real GDP per capita, capital-labor ratio, institutional quality and urbanization increase CO2 emissions while the square of real GDP per capita and trade openness contributed to reducing CO2 emissions. Also, our findings fail to support Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) theory. The outcomes of this research illustrated that scale effect dominates composition effect and followed by technique effect. The interaction effect of FDI and technique effect has the least influence on CO2 levels in reducing the harmful effects of FDI on CO2. Furthermore, it should be highlighted that although FDI increases CO2 emissions, its detrimental impact on CO2 emissions is moderately mitigated by its interactions with three economic mechanisms. Therefore, it is necessary to enhance the technical processes of production as well as the development of modern technologies. We recommended that policymakers balance sustainable economic development with environmental sustainability by considering the indirect effects of factors on CO2 emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thinning is a crucial approach to the near-natural conversion of plantations, contributing to the sustainability of forest management. However, over a rotation, the effects of thinning on tree growth, structure, and species diversity, as well as their scale-dependent outcomes, remain unclear. Ten years after conducting individual tree thinning in a Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook.) monoculture in southwest China, we analyzed the thinning effects within the influence zone (r = 0–2.5 m) centered around stumps and center trees. The results indicate that (1) individual tree thinning did not significantly promote the increment of diameter at breast height, volume, and biomass of Chinese fir. The four nearest Chinese fir around stumps and center trees were in a state of random distribution, high mixing, and dominance; (2) individual tree thinning significantly promoted the formation of species abundance and richness at r = 2–2.5 m. With increased scale, more species were found, leading to increased stability in diameter and species distribution. Linear and nonlinear relationships between diameter classes, mingling, and dominance became more stable; (3) later-coming populations within both modes exhibited a common characteristic of random distribution, high mixing, and disadvantage at each scale, but with significant differences in species composition (kj = 0.22–0.61). These results suggest that individual tree thinning has limited impacts on the growth and structure of retained trees in Chinese fir plantations but significantly enhances the formation of species diversity, demonstrating scale effects. This underscores the feasibility of individual tree thinning in the near-natural conversion of plantations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Accurate spatial distribution of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is essential information needed to peaking emissions and achieving carbon neutral in China. The aim of this study was to map CO2 emissions with high spatial resolution at provincial scale and then explore the scale effect on mapping results. As an example, the spatiotemporal pattern and factors influencing CO2 emissions were examined in Guizhou Province in Western China. With the proposed method, a reasonable spatial distribution of CO2 emissions with high spatial resolution was obtained, which had relatively accurate information on spatial details. The optimal resolution of CO2 emissions at the provincial scale under high spatial resolution was approximately 90 m and 1260 m. More detailed grid data can better reflect the spatial variability of CO2 emissions. Emissions of CO2 were spatially heterogeneous in Guizhou, with high emissions in centers of big cities that gradually spread and decreased from city centers. From 2009 to 2019, the spatial distribution of CO2 emissions developed from agglomeration to dispersion. Areas of high carbon emissions decreased, those of medium carbon emissions increased, and many areas changed from no emissions to carbon emissions. Industrial land had the highest emissions, followed by commercial and transportation lands. Over 10 years, changes occurred in the relation between interregional economic level of Guizhou and CO2 emissions, with the relation changing from linear into an inverted U-shaped relation. The effect of industrial structure on CO2 emissions decreased, and the linear increase between CO2 emissions and the urban scale became more evident. The results of this study will contribute to accurate monitoring and management of carbon emissions in Guizhou, as well as provide support to formulate policies related to controls on carbon emissions in different regions.

Abstract Having an accurate understanding of the scale effect of surface morphology characteristics is crucial to examining the mechanical behavior of rock structural plane. At present, the quantification and sampling methods of surface morphology show diversity, which is the potential reason for the inconsistent research conclusions on scale effect. Firstly, based on mathematical statistics and correlation analysis, the most representative parameter is proposed from hundreds of morphological parameters. Then, the previous scale effect sampling methods are analyzed. In order to ensure that the selected samples are representative, a novel sampling method, considering all morphological information, is proposed. By means of the novel quantification and sampling methods, the size effect characteristics are systematically analyzed. Under the conditions of different rock types, shear directions and sampling locations, etc., discontinuity roughness does not change significantly with sampling scale. As sampling scale increases, the distribution range of representative samples is gradually concentrated, the total amount decreases, and the proportion increases. However, the distribution of representative samples on the initial structural plane does not show obvious regularity. These findings would provide theoretical support for the deformation control and stability analysis of rock mass in engineering.

Many existing efforts have taken advantage of large-scale spatial-temporal data to partition cities via constructed human interaction networks. However, few studies focus on communities emerging between adjacent cities in big urban agglomerations, which we call “cross-city” communities. In this study, we introduce a novel framework to detect cross-city communities in urban agglomerations under different scales leveraging a large number of fine-grained mobile signaling data aiming to break the original administrative boundaries. Taking the Pearl River Delta (PRD) urban agglomeration in China as study area, we investigate the existence of potential communities at three scales, i.e. city-group level, city level and sub-city level. The partition results are expected to benefit transportation planning, urban zoning and administrative boundary re-delineation. The results from our study highlight the necessity of considering cross-city communities and their scale effects when examining urban spatial interactions.

This paper presents an investigation of the scale effect on the flow around a propeller using the CFD method. The differences in the numerical setup and the results obtained for the characteristics of an open water propeller are described and analysed in this paper. Moreover, the paper also highlight and analyse the scale effect on differences in flow around the propeller, such as the pressure fields in the cross section, the distributions of the skin friction coefficient and limiting streamlines on the propeller blade, the vortices in the wake of the propeller, and the velocity fields. The differences in the flow around the propeller are more clearly seen when it works under heavy loading conditions, an important finding that can support designers in improving propeller performance, investigating cavitations, etc. at the full scale. The reference propeller used in this study is the benchmark propeller PPTC VP 1304.

Heterogeneous karst surfaces exerted scaling effects whereby specific runoff decrease with increasing area. The existing RUSLE-L equations are limited by the default implicit assumption that the surface-runoff intensity is constant at any slope length. The objective of this study was to modify the L-equation by establishing the functional relationship between surface-runoff intensity and karst slope length, and to evaluate its predictive capability at different resolution DEMs. Transfer grid layers were generated based on the area rate of surface karstification and considered the runoff transmission percentage at the exposed karst fractures or conduits to be zero. Using the multiple flow direction algorithm united with the transfer grid (MFDTG), the flow accumulation of each grid cell was simulated to estimate the average surface-runoff intensity over different slope lengths. The effectiveness of MFDTG algorithm was validated by runoff plot data in Southwestern China. The simulated results in a typical peak-cluster depression basin with an area rate of surface karstification of 6.5% showed that the relationship between surface-runoff intensity and slope length was a negative power function. Estimated by the proposed modified L-equation ((alx(b+1)/22.13)m), the L-factor averages of the study basin ranged from 0.35 to 0.41 at 1, 5, 25 and 90 m resolutions respectively. This study indicated that the modified L-equation enables an improved prediction of the much smaller L-factor and the use of any resolution DEMs on karst landscapes. Particular attention should be given to the variation of surface-runoff intensity with slope length when predicting L-factor on hillslopes with runoff scale effect.

ABSTRACTUrban vitality is an essential reference for formulating urban planning and urban development policies, while the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP) is a crucial issue that affects the accurate assessment of urban vitality and the understanding of its driving factors. Currently, MAUP in urban vitality studies has not received sufficient attention, and there are limited investigations on whether MAUP significantly affects the spatial autocorrelation of urban vitality. Moreover, existing studies have mainly focused on the impact of individual factors on urban vitality, with minor consideration of the interactions between factors and their effects on urban vitality at different spatial scales. This study takes the Pearl River Delta Core (PRDC) region as the research area. It used the Optimal Parameters-based Geographic Detector (OPGD) model and spatial autocorrelation to analyze the impact of the MAUP on urban vitality and its Built Environment (BE) factors. The results indicated that (1) the five types of BE driving factors, including work, living, rest, traffic, and Points of Interest (POI) diversity, were spatially sensitive and exhibited scale threshold effects. (2) The zoning schemes demonstrated the ability to alter the explanatory power (q-value) of driving factors and their trends. The spatial granularity and aggregation level of the grid-based zoning scheme, NPP-VIIRS nighttime light zoning scheme, and land surface temperature zoning scheme exhibited a logarithmic relationship, where spatial autocorrelation levels decreased with increasing aggregation level. (3) Compared to single-factor effects, the interactive effects of BE factors exhibited a higher q-value for urban vitality. Additionally, the q-values for factor interactions were more stable in multiple spatial scales than those q-values for individual factors. This study provides decision-making references for urban planners and policymakers to accurately assess urban vitality and find balanced, improved paths to enhance it.

Topographic scale characteristics contain valuable information for interpreting landform structures, which is crucial for understanding the spatial differentiation of landforms across large areas. However, the absence of parameters that specifically describe the topographic scale characteristics hinders the quantitative representation of regional topography from the perspective of spatial scales. In this study, false-color composite images were generated using normalized topographic relief data, showing a type of scale-oriented terrain pattern. Subsequent analysis indicated a direct correlation between the luminance of the patterns and the normalized topographic relief. Additionally, a linear correlation exists between the color of the patterns and the change rate in normalized topographic relief. Based on the analysis results, the issue of characterizing topographic scale effects was transformed into a problem of interpreting terrain patterns. The introduction of two parameters, flux and curl of topographic field, allowed for the interpretation of the terrain patterns. The assessment indicated that the calculated values of topographic field flux are equivalent to the luminance of the terrain patterns and the variations in the topographic field curl correspond with the spatial differentiation of colors in the terrain patterns. This study introduced a new approach to analyzing topographic scale characteristics, providing a pathway for quantitatively describing scale effects and automatically classifying landforms at a regional scale. Through exploratory analysis on artificially constructed simple DEMs and verification in four typical geomorphological regions of real terrain, it was shown that the terrain pattern method has better intuitiveness than the scale signature approach. It can reflect the scale characteristics of terrain in continuous space. Compared to the MTPCC image, the terrain parameters derived from the terrain pattern method further quantitatively describe the scale effects of the terrain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integer-order thermoviscoelastic models may fail to give an accurate description of the thermomechanical behavior of viscoelastic materials, which inherently have the memory-dependent feature. Meanwhile, with the miniaturization of devices, the small-scale effect on elastic deformation is becoming increasingly significant. To better describe the memory-dependent effect and the small-scale effect in viscoelastic microstructures, this work focuses on developing a refined nonlocal thermoviscoelastic model by incorporating the fractional-order dual-phase-lag (DPL) heat-conduction model and the fractional-order strain model. Moreover, the Caputo–Fabrizio (CF) definition and the Tempered-Caputo (TC) definition of the fractional derivative without a singular kernel as well as the extension of the Caputo definition are adopted to reflect the memory-dependent effects of the heat conduction and the stress–strain relation for the first time, respectively. Then, this new model is applied to investigate the transient response of a viscoelastic microplate subjected to a sinusoidal thermal loading. The governing equations involving the modified parameters are formulated and then solved by the Laplace-transform method. Some parametric results are demonstrated to display the impacts of the fractional-order parameter, the fractional-order strain parameter and the nonlocal parameter on the considered physical quantities. The results show that the nonlocal effect and the memory-dependent effect strongly depend on the viscoelastic microstructure characteristics in a thermal environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The crack resistance of concrete structures with low reinforcement ratios requires a broader examination. It is particularly important in the case of foundations working in changing subsoil conditions. Unfavorable phenomena occurring in the subsoil (e.g., ground subsidence, landslips, non-uniform settlement) can lead to unexpected cracking. Therefore, it is necessary to check the effectiveness of the low reinforcement provided. As there are limited studies on lightly reinforced concrete structures, we performed our own experimental investigation and numerical calculations. In the beams analyzed, the reinforcement ratio varied from 0.05% to 0.20%. It was found that crack resistance in concrete members depends on the reinforcement ratio and steel bar distribution. A comprehensive method was proposed for estimating the crack resistance of lightly reinforced concrete members in which both the reinforcement ratio and the reinforcement dispersion ratio were taken into account. Furthermore, the method considered the size effect and the fracture properties of concrete. The proposed method provides the basis for extrapolation of the test results obtained for small elements and conclusions for members with large cross-sections, such as foundations, which frequently use lightly reinforced concrete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comprehensive analysis of production efficiency was carried out, a model was developed and the degree of influence of factors on the level of profitability of growing grain crops was calculated. Forecasts of the yield of grain crops, wheat, corn, and barley for the nearest future have been built, taking into account the patterns that have developed over the previous period (1950- 2022). Forecast indicators of the profitability of the production of grain crops for the short-term perspective have been determined. The dependence of the efficiency of grain-growing enterprises on the average size of their sown areas was assessed. It was established that a positive return from the effect of scale, which is reflected in the form of an increase in productivity and profitability, is observed in grain farming enterprises when the land bank is increased to 5,000 hectares. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bumped from a flight? Relax with this defense of the big business practice of deliberately promising more services than one will provide. On a small scale, over‐promising yields a toxic moral dilemma and a lie. At a large scale, the dilemma becomes dilute, and the lie completely disappears. Overbooking is honest because there is a sufficiently high probability of fulfilling each promise. Overbooking is socially beneficial because the promised resources are used more efficiently. There are fewer wasted seats on jumbo jets and hence cheaper tickets with less pollution. Widespread disapproval of overbooking is a fallacious scaling error. Instead of there being too much overbooking, there is too little. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decarbonizing economies requires an energy transition from conventional energy resources to renewable and clean energy resources. However, this transition largely depends upon the availability of huge investments to manage high start‐up costs and operational infrastructure. In this respect, the financial sector can play a vital role. This study explores the financial sector's role in renewable energy consumption utilizing a comprehensive measure of financial sector development constituting both financial institutions and financial markets. Moreover, the study utilizes an advanced econometric technique “dynamic panel threshold model” on panel data of 165 countries ranging from 1980 to 2019. The empirical analysis reveals the presence of a threshold value of 0.191, 0.196, and 0.008 for the overall financial development index, financial institutions index, and financial market index, respectively. This finding confirms the presence of a U‐shaped curve between financial sector development and renewable energy consumption, validating the existence of the financial Kuznets curve. Thus, initially, financial sector development results in lower renewable energy consumption while after reaching the threshold level it boosts renewable energy consumption. Furthermore, the study also shows the statistically significant role of economic growth, trade openness, and inflation in explaining renewable energy usage. The obtained outcomes suggest a pressing necessity to improve both financial institutions and markets to surpass the threshold levels of financial sector performance within the financial sector, thus supporting a rise in renewable energy consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Yangtze River Basin serves as an essential ecological shelter in China, yet it has encountered escalating aquatic ecological challenges. Exploring the spatial–temporal changes and the trade-off–synergy relationships of water-related ecosystem services (WESs) is necessary for formulating management and planning policies targeting the sustainable development of watersheds. In this study, the InVEST model is utilized to evaluate the spatial–temporal variations in water yield (WY), water purification (WP), and soil conservation (SC) in the Yangtze River Basin using remote-sensed data from 2001 to 2021. The spatial overlay method and a correlation analysis were adopted to reveal the trade-off–synergy relationship among the three WESs. Additionally, we performed a comparative analysis across the grid and sub-basin scales. The results showed that the multi-year average WY, WP, and SC were 536.10 mm, 1.32 kg/ha, and 250.08 t/ha, representing increasing rates of 4.74 mm/a, −0.001 kg/ha/a, and 1.88 t/ha/a, respectively. Moreover, the trade-off–synergy relationships of WESs exhibited spatial variability; specifically, the WY-WP, WP-SC, and WY-SC pairs demonstrated reduced synergy magnitude over time. The WES interactions were stable across the scales of interest, while synergy strength showed noticeable variability. The findings may contribute to the sustainable development of the Yangtze River Basin and enhance the comprehensive management of WESs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to study the scale effect in wave-structure interactions and the role that structure-related parameters (tension T or bending stiffness EI) plays, riser model tests under regular waves were conducted using the model with multiple geometric scales (1:15, 1:12 and 1:9) in a wave basin. The riser model used is a novel structural design combing the outer polyvinyl chloride pipe with the core steel rod which could be simplified as a cantilever beam. Different initial tension T acting on the riser are tested by adjusting the slotted weight. The results show that the amplitude varies in a cubic fashion with the distance from the fixed end. In addition, the influence of the wave period and top tension T on the amplitude are investigated, which ultimately leads to a dimensionless number π1 = KCd·TL²/EI where KC is the classical Keulegan-Carpenter number (KC), EI shows the bending stiffness of the riser model and L gives the pipe length. With the KC number revised to take the distance from the fixed end into the calculation, this parameter provides a good measure in estimating the amplitudes of the riser vibrations induced by the waves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the large-scale oil exploration and development in the 1960 s, the Yellow River Delta (YRD) has undergone rapid industrialization and urbanization. Concurrently, the regional landscape ecological structure has experienced significant changes, and the degree of landscape fragmentation has increased. Therefore, a comprehensive assessment of the spatiotemporal dynamics and formation mechanisms of landscape fragmentation is crucial for the protection and restoration of natural ecosystem in the YRD. This study constructs an evaluation index system for landscape fragmentation in the YRD from three perspectives: quantitative characteristics, shape features, and spatial distribution. By combining inflection point analysis, landscape area loss index, and geostatistical models, the optimal spatial scale of landscape fragmentation from 2000 to 2020 is determined. Additionally, the study analyzes the spatiotemporal changes in landscape fragmentation and employs the optimal parameters-based geographical detector (OPGD) model to reveal the formation mechanisms of spatial heterogeneity in landscape fragmentation. The study findings are as follows: (1) The optimal spatial resolution for analyzing landscape fragmentation in the YRD was 80 m, and the extent was 880 m. (2) Between 2000 and 2020, landscape fragmentation in the YRD increased, with the highest level recorded in 2020. Highly fragmented areas, particularly inland regions, expanded remarkably, whereas coastal areas experienced lower fragmentation levels. (3) Distance to rivers and ditch density were the primary factors affecting landscape fragmentation, followed by land-use type and average land gross domestic product. The influence of natural factors was relatively minimal. The interaction between factors had a greater influence on landscape fragmentation compared to individual factors. The distance to rivers and land-use type exhibited the most substantial enhancement effects following interaction with other factors. This study provides valuable insights into the spatiotemporal dynamics and mechanisms of landscape fragmentation in the YRD, providing valuable guidance for the sustainable management and ecological restoration of the region and other similar ecologically sensitive areas.

With rapid urbanization, the conflicts between economic development and environmental protection have become increasingly complex and exhibit multiscale characteristics. Constructing a green space ecological network (EN) is an effective approach to alleviate urban ecological issues and maintain regional ecological security. However, traditional EN research often focuses on a single scale, neglecting multiscale nesting and collaborative optimization of landscape elements, particularly the importance of spatial granularity. To address this deficiency, this study proposed a multiobjective, multiscale nested green space EN framework for Chengdu, China. Using landscape pattern index fitting functions, morphological spatial pattern analysis, the connectivity index, circuit theory, hydrological analysis model, scale nesting, and hierarchical transmission theories, a multiscale coupled synergistic and hierarchical optimization regional green space ecological security pattern (ESP) was developed. Analysis of the derived results revealed the following. ① With increasing granularity, the landscape pattern indices showed overall increasing, overall decreasing, and overall fluctuating trends. The optimal granularity threshold for large, medium, and small scales was 9, 6, and 3 m, respectively. ② Overall, 92, 66, and 88 ecological sources; 403, 278, and 321 ecological corridors; 72, 77, and 47 pinch points; 96, 94, and 88 barriers; and 182, 120, and 87 ecological nodes were identified in the city, central city, and old city areas, respectively. ③ The ENs demonstrated reasonable hierarchical nesting characteristics, essential for interscale material and energy circulation. There were 9 overlapping ecological sources with total area of 18.34 km2 and 47 overlapping corridors with total length of 53.37 km. These overlapping areas were key regions for ensuring stability in the overall regional ESP and continuity in biological processes, and should be given priority protection. In addition, there were also 19 overlapping pinch points, 12 overlapping barriers, and 4 ecological nodes that accounted for 26.39 %, 24.68 %, and 40.43 % of the total pinch points; 12.50 %, 12.77 %, and 13.64 % of the total barriers; and 2.20 %, 3.33 %, and 4.60 % of the total ecological nodes in the city area, central city area, and old city area, respectively. The high overlap of ecological strategic points across scales indicated cross-scale continuity of biological processes. ④ Enhancing the habitat quality of land types such as forest land, green spaces, grassland, and water bodies is crucial for restoration of ecological corridors and strategic points. Constructing a multiscale hierarchical linkage framework and formulating cross-scale pattern optimization and coordination schemes can effectively address ecological issues. The multiscale nested and synergistic green space ESP, constructed from the “source–corridor–strategic-point–network” framework, enhances the connectivity of regional landscape elements, increases energy flow efficiency, and strengthens spatial stability. The results provide methodological support for strategic policymaking focused on ecological spatial governance of an urban ecological protection at multiple levels.

In karst regions, water scarcity often challenges vegetation’s carbon balance. While carbon and water use efficiencies (CUE and WUE) are crucial metrics, traditional assessments lack a comprehensive evaluation of their combined impact. This study bridged this gap by introducing carbon–water compound use efficiency (COM) and investigating its key drivers in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau using exploratory spatial analyses to identify the scale effect of spatial divergence of COM, and then explored the driving forces of COM from natural and human factors at optimal scale using the optimal parameter geo-detector (OPGD) and geographically weighted regression (GWR) model. The findings revealed that (1) Between 2000 and 2018, the mean CUE in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau karst regions exceeded that of non-karst areas, while the mean WUE and COM were lower in the karst areas compared to non-karst areas. (2) except for CUE, the WUE and COM tended to increase, and the change rates were greater in the karst areas; (3) NDVI dominated the spatial divergence of COM, showed a shift from a negative correlation in the eastern to a positive correlation in the western of the study area. These findings shed light on the unique dynamics of CUE and WUE in karst landscapes, providing valuable insights for targeted ecological restoration projects and promoting a sustainable balance between carbon and water resources.

At present, titanium alloy/carbon fiber reinforced polymer (TA1/CFRP) laminates, representing the latest fourth generation of fiber metal laminates (FMLs), are predominantly applied in the field of aerospace. The miniaturization of traditional FMLs in thickness or plane size to the micron level for the study of structural properties of ultra-thin laminates will further expand the application of FMLs in the field of micro-devices. Given that carbon nanotubes have a strengthening mechanism in polymers. However, most existing studies have focused on the effect of carbon nanotubes on the properties of macro-scale FMLs, while the enhancement mechanism of the interfacial and mechanical properties of ultra-thin micro-scale FMLs has not been studied, leaving the mechanism still unclear. Based on this, this paper explores the interfacial deformation mode, damage fracture and performance enhancement mechanism of the ultra-thin TA1/CFRP laminates by comparing the parameters of tensile strength and elongation under quasi-static conditions and different process parameters of multi-walled carbon nanotubes content, test temperature, geometry size and grain size. Meanwhile, the correlation law between high-speed tension and quasi-static tension is determined, a 29.3 % increase in tensile strength as the strain rate rises from 0.001 s−1 to 100 s−1, yielding the basic deformation law of ultra-thin FMLs.

This paper aims to show the scale effects of vertical maneuvering derivatives for an underwater vehicle using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The model scale and full-scale benchmark DARPA suboff hull forms were used in numerical vertical planar motion mechanism simulations to achieve this aim. The heave forces, pitch moments, and Euler coefficients are calculated together with the linear vertical maneuvering derivatives by implementing the Fourier series expansion approach. The results show that the coupled added mass terms are significantly influenced by the scale effects, whereas the impact of scale effects on the decoupled added mass and coupled and decoupled damping terms is negligible. Considering that the effects of the coupled added mass on the vertical maneuvering characteristics are almost negligible, the vertical maneuvering of a submarine is slightly influenced by the scale effects.

This paper investigates possibilities of reducing production inefficiency using same input vector. Firms mostly suffer technical inefficiency in their production. Producers are found to operate below the frontier. Hence, empirical measures of production efficiencies are necessary to determine the inefficiency level, magnitude of inefficiency reduction, and gains that could be obtained by improving performance in the sector. The study used secondary data collected from Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) database. The dataset covers the period 1960-2021. Variables extracted included agricultural GDP (kg), fertiliser usage (kg), agricultural labour(man-days), and number of tractors (No). The data were subjected to a unit root test for stationarity, and a stochastic frontier production/ Cost function model were applied to determine technical inefficiency of variables in the model. The result of unit root shows that series are integrated of the first order I (1). AIC criteria indicate an optimal lag length of two years, while the Unrestricted Co-integration Trace and Maximum Eigenvalue test show strong evidence of long-run relationship amongst variables. The parameters of Stochastic Frontier Production Function estimated were positively consistent with the study’s a priori expectation for such variables as fertiliser (0.2634), labour (0.3159), land (0.1846), and tractor (0. 1587). Output-oriented technical efficiency is 0.7802 (78%) and 22% is technically inefficient. A decreasing returns to scale value of (0.9226) with a scale effect of 0.9226. The sector is 58% economically efficient with cost savings of 42% and 75% allocative efficiency. This study concludes that Nigeria’s agriculture suffers from production inefficiencies and this inefficiency can be reduced by using the same input levels.

ABSTRACTFine-scale population estimation (FPE) is crucial for urban management. After training, the bottom-up FPE models can be applied independently of census data. However, given the lack of real fine-scale population data, the existing bottom-up methods typically apply models trained on coarse-grained census data to FPE directly, causing estimation bias induced by scale effects. Traffic analysis zones (TAZs) balance geo-semantics and fine granularity, but their potential as population analysis units has not been fully exploited. Hence, we developed a weakly-supervised TAZ-scale bottom-up population estimation method (WSTP). Specifically, to mitigate scale effects, the weakly-supervised training procedure involves fine-scale feature input, model prediction, spatial aggregation, and coarse-scale supervision is designed to ensure that WSTP consistently focuses on FPE throughout the training and prediction phases. To enable weakly-supervised training using census data, we treated TAZs as graph nodes and designed a Spatial Aggregation Layer to aggregate TAZ-scale population predictions into communities. Given the diverse distribution patterns across age groups, we decomposed the FPE task by age groups. The experiments showed that WSTP significantly outperformed the baselines with R2 values of 0.821 and 0.785 at the community and TAZ scales, respectively, indicating that WSTP can mitigate scale effects and produce high-resolution, accurate population data.

ABSTRACTLaser powder bed fusion (LPBF) of multi-scaled structures is a prominent direction pursued by innovative designs and engineering applications. However, understanding the impact of scale effect on the effectiveness of actual structures is a pressing challenge. This work investigates the influence of structure scale on surface morphology and mechanical property by fabricating tensile samples with gauge diameters ranging from 0.2 mm to 5.0 mm. For the hatching scanning strategy, the surface roughness drastically reduces by ∼51% as the diameter increases. This appears to be the coupling results of heat accumulation, molten pool morphology at the end of single-track, overlap between multi-tracks within a layer, and successive rotational buildup between layers. Moreover, decreasing the diameter substantially reduces the tensile strength. Fortunately, a hatching-contour scanning strategy is proposed to eliminate the scale effect of surface morphology and strength. These efforts provide essential guidance for the broader application of multi-scaled structures.

Purpose: Hoping to uncover the physical principles of the vibration of the functionally graded material (FGM) microplate, by which the authors can make contributions to the design and manufacturing process in factories like micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) and other industries. Design/methodology/approach: The authors design a method by establishing a reasonable mathematical model of the physical microplate composed of a porous FGM. Findings: The authors discover that the porosity, the distributions of porosity, the power law of the FGM and the length-to-thickness ratio all affect the natural frequency of the vibration of the microplate, but in different ways. Originality/value: Originally proposed a model of the micro FGM plate considering the different distributions of the porosity and scale effect and analyzed the vibration frequency of it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We consider the problem of deformation of a layered rectangle whose lower side is rigidly clamped, a distributed normal load acts on the upper side, and the lateral sides are in conditions of sliding termination. One-parameter gradient elasticity theory is used to account for the scale effects. The boundary conditions on the lateral faces allow us to use separation of variables. The displacements and mechanical loads are expanded in Fourier series. To find the harmonics of displacements, we have a system of two fourth order differential equations. We seek a solution to the system of differential equations by using the elastic potential of displacements and find the unknown integration constants by satisfying the boundary and transmission conditions for the harmonics of displacements. Considering some particular examples, we calculate the horizontal and vertical distribution of displacements as well as the couple and total stresses of a layered rectangle. We exhibit the difference between the distributions of displacements and stresses which are found on using the solutions to the problem in the classical and gradient formulations. Also, we show that the total stresses have a small jump on the transmission line due to the fact that, in accord with the gradient elasticity theory, not the total stresses, but the components of the load vectors should be continuous on the transmission line. Furthermore, we reveal a significant influence of the increase of the scale parameter on the changes of the values of displacements and total and couple stresses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the data of 2015 China Household Finance Survey (CHFS), this paper applies the intermediary effect model to identify the intermediate transmission mechanism in which farmland transfers affect agricultural production efficiency. The results show that the output value of households that have transferred farmland is increased by about 27% more than those that have not. In addition, the transfer of farmland has a more significant impact on the agricultural production efficiency of young and middle --aged families. The transfer of farmland from grain production areas has an increased tendency to household output value. The mechanism analysis shows that the transfer of farmland affects agricultural production efficiency in the following two ways. On the one hand, the transfer of farmland can help realize the effective replacement of labor by machinery, increase the mechanization degree of agricultural production, and realize the scale effect of farmland. On the other hand, based on the maximization of their own interests, farmers prefer to plant cash crops and improve agricultural production efficiency through the selection effect. By comparing the above two effects, we found that the planting selection behavior of compacting grain and expanding economic growth is more prominent. Therefore, this article proposes to promote the development of the farmland transfer market and make use of scale advantage. Meanwhile, the self-selection behavior of transferred farmers in planting crops should be valued and young people with advanced concepts to engage in agricultural production activities should be introduced, which inject "fresh blood" into agricultural modernization. However, we should also keep the red line of farmland and alert the phenomenon of "non-agricultural" and "non-grain" in the transfer of farmland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Variables that can be considered in experimental investigations of internal instability of earth dam materials are often bounded by practicality and feasibility constraints. To overcome these shortcomings, a total of 164 previous published experimental results were compiled to study statistically the relative significance of vertical effective stress, grain size ratio (D15/d85), fines content, coefficient of uniformity (Cu), and specimen length in the mechanism of internal instability. The present statistical results agreed with previous experimental findings on the combined dominant roles played by fines content and stress in the internal instability. However, the stress reduction factor was found to be inversely correlated with the vertical effective stress, which was not reported previously. The scale effect of specimen size has significant positive correlations with both the stress reduction factor and critical hydraulic gradient, whereas the influences of Cu and D15/d85 were minimal, in contrast to previous experimental findings. An improved theoretical hydromechanical envelope for predicting internal instability of cohesionless soil in the space of stress-gradient–stress reduction factor was proposed in this study. The unstable envelope moved with increasing applied hydraulic gradient until the state of material touching the envelope. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grasping the interrelationship between the supply and demand of ecosystem services (ESs) and spatial scale characteristics is the foundation for effective ecological zoning management, which helps to realize a win–win situation for both ecological protection and economic development. This paper focuses on the following three real problems: mismatch in ES supply and demand evaluation, mechanical and subjective delineation of ecological zoning, and rough management strategies, and constructs a multi-scale ecological zoning management framework for the "comprehensive evaluation of supply and demand, ecological zoning, and enhancement of human well-being". This study integrates the InVEST model, SOM, Z-score quadrant matching, and coordination degree method, and applies them to the ecological management zoning of Hangzhou. The results show that (1) the spatial differentiation of ESs in Hangzhou is significant. The spatial pattern of the five types of ES supply varies at the county scale and the grid scale on which ES demand is concentrated and is consistent at different scales. (2) ES supply–demand matching in Hangzhou is at the basic coordination and can be divided into four modes including HH, LH, LL, and HL at both the county and grid scales. On the small scale, the proportion of mismatches declines slightly, but the severity rises. (3) ES supply is divided into four categories as follows: the food production bundle, the carbon storage bundle, the ESs balancing bundle, and the ESs depleting bundle, and clarifies the priority of ES management. (4) Construct an ecological management practice path, delineates 6 ecological management zones at the county scale and 19 secondary management zones at the grid scale. Targeted measures are proposed in terms of supply–demand adjustment strategies, ecological management strategies, and key implementation areas. This study helps to incorporate the interaction between the supply and demand of ESs into the planning framework and provides decision-making support for refined ecological management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economic agglomeration has played a key function in China's economic transformation. Meanwhile, structural adjustment and external pressure to reduce carbon emission necessitate a deeper investigation into its relationship with carbon productivity. This paper measures economic agglomeration and carbon productivity of 281 cities in China in 2003–2017. With the purpose of exploring the spatial effect of economic agglomeration on carbon productivity, a spatial Durbin model is constructed. In addition, the mediation effect model is also adopted for examining the transmission mechanism of economic scale and technological progress on economic agglomeration as well as carbon productivity. A heterogeneity test is also carried out to uncover the varying effects of economic agglomeration on carbon productivity. The empirical results suggest that economic agglomeration raises carbon productivity not only in the local cities but also in the neighbouring ones. The impact of economic agglomeration on carbon productivity becomes more potent as the level of economic agglomeration increases. For cities with low level of economic agglomeration, the effect is mainly achieved through the expansion of economic scale, but for cities with high level of economic agglomeration, the effect is mainly achieved through technological progress. Therefore, we suggest encouraging carbon productivity improvement through technology effect in cities with high economic agglomeration level, while enhancing carbon productivity through scale effect in cities with low economic agglomeration level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we proposed a method of introducing globally uniaxial strain into SOI(silicon-on-insulator) wafers, and the strain mechanism was discussed. Based on the size effect of internal-stress of SiN film, uniaxial strain was introduced in SOI layer by the formation of SiN bar array which width and the spacing were 1.5 μm and 3.0 μm on the whole surface of He+ implanted SOI wafer. Polarized Raman spectroscopy was adopted to reveal the uniaxial character of the introduced strain. In the crystallographic orientation of [100] and [110], uniaxially tensile strain of 0.7613% and 0.5125% was achieved respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few studies provide direct evidences that agricultural fiscal affects agricultural carbon intensity. This study tries to fill this gap. Using panel data of 30 provinces in China from 2005 to 2019, we conclude that agricultural fiscal expenditures significantly reduce agricultural carbon intensity. The result is still robust after employing the provincial agricultural leaders' birthplace information as an instrumental variable. Further study shows that the negative effect of agricultural fiscal expenditures on agricultural carbon intensity is more pronounced in regions with less corruption and is also more visible in central, western, and inland regions than other areas. For this effect, agricultural technological improvement and structure optimization are possible channels, but not operation scale expansion. Interestingly, although agricultural fiscal expenditures reduce the local agricultural carbon intensity, neighbor regions' carbon intensities are increased due to fiscal rivalry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Slant range geometry plays a crucial role in interpreting synthetic aperture radar (SAR) observations, especially in converting line-of-sight (LOS) surface deformations to actual vertical subsidence. This paper proposes a new conversion model to retrieve vertical settlements of the embankment slopes using the geometrical parameters of the dam and the SAR sensor. The simulation results highlight the impact of slope foreshortening and heading direction of the satellite on deformation retrieval. Various SAR data with different resolutions and bands are used to analyze the model's performance, revealing a high conformity of the model with practical conversion parameters exceeding 80% for TerraSAR-X and Cosmo-SkyMed data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The assumption of an isotropic material behaviour is still common practice for tunnel design. Strictly speaking, this assumption is only valid if the influence of directional dependencies on the resulting deformations and stresses is marginal. In lithologies that have a high degree of anisotropy, such as shales and phyllites, the orientation characteristics of material properties such as strength and stiffness should be taken into account in order to avoid serious misinterpretations of the bearing capacity and deformation characteristic of the surrounding rock and the tunnel lining. The main focus is to accurately distinguish between the different types and terminology of anisotropy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]