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Saponins are plant secondary metabolites comprising glycosylated triterpenoids, steroids or steroidal alkaloids with a broad spectrum of toxicity to microbial pathogens and pest organisms that contribute to basal plant defense to biotic attack. Secretion of glycosyl hydrolases that enzymatically convert saponins into less toxic products was thus far the only mechanism reported to enable fungal pathogens to colonize their saponin-containing host plant(s). We studied the mechanisms that the fungus Botrytis cinerea utilizes to be tolerant to well-characterized, structurally related saponins from tomato and Digitalis purpurea. By gene expression studies, comparative genomics, enzyme assays and testing a large panel of fungal (knockout and complemented) mutants, we unraveled four distinct cellular mechanisms that participate in the mitigation of the toxic activity of these saponins and in virulence on saponin-producing host plants. The enzymatic deglycosylation that we identified is novel and unique to this fungus-saponin combination. The other three tolerance mechanisms operate in the fungal membrane and are mediated by protein families that are widely distributed in the fungal kingdom. We present a spatial and temporal model on how these mechanisms jointly confer tolerance to saponins and discuss the repercussions of these findings for other plant pathogenic fungi, as well as human pathogens.

QS-21 is a potent vaccine adjuvant and remains the only saponin-based adjuvant that has been clinically approved for use in humans1,2. However, owing to the complex structure of QS-21, its availability is limited. Today, the supply depends on laborious extraction from the Chilean soapbark tree or on low-yielding total chemical synthesis3,4. Here we demonstrate the complete biosynthesis of QS-21 and its precursors, as well as structural derivatives, in engineered yeast strains. The successful biosynthesis in yeast requires fine-tuning of the host's native pathway fluxes, as well as the functional and balanced expression of 38 heterologous enzymes. The required biosynthetic pathway spans seven enzyme families-a terpene synthase, P450s, nucleotide sugar synthases, glycosyltransferases, a coenzyme A ligase, acyl transferases and polyketide synthases-from six organisms, and mimics in yeast the subcellular compartmentalization of plants from the endoplasmic reticulum membrane to the cytosol. Finally, by taking advantage of the promiscuity of certain pathway enzymes, we produced structural analogues of QS-21 using this biosynthetic platform. This microbial production scheme will allow for the future establishment of a structure-activity relationship, and will thus enable the rational design of potent vaccine adjuvants.

QS-21 is a potent vaccine adjuvant currently sourced by extraction from the Chilean soapbark tree. It is a key component of human vaccines for shingles, malaria, coronavirus disease 2019 and others under development. The structure of QS-21 consists of a glycosylated triterpene scaffold coupled to a complex glycosylated 18-carbon acyl chain that is critical for immunostimulant activity. We previously identified the early pathway steps needed to make the triterpene glycoside scaffold; however, the biosynthetic route to the acyl chain, which is needed for stimulation of T cell proliferation, was unknown. Here, we report the biogenic origin of the acyl chain, characterize the series of enzymes required for its synthesis and addition and reconstitute the entire 20-step pathway in tobacco, thereby demonstrating the production of QS-21 in a heterologous expression system. This advance opens up unprecedented opportunities for bioengineering of vaccine adjuvants, investigating structure-activity relationships and understanding the mechanisms by which these compounds promote the human immune response.

Cornu aspersum is an invasive terrestrial snail pest of the family Helicidae. In South Africa, where the snail causes significant crop losses in viticulture areas, synthetic molluscicides are used to control them. However, the latter negatively affects both those who apply it and the non-targeted organisms. Persicaria senegalensis, a plant in the family Polyganeaceae, has demonstrated molluscicidal properties against aquatic snails. The present researchers conducted a quantitative analysis of the total saponin content of the leaves, flowers, stems and roots of P. senegalensis. We evaluated the plant’s molluscicidal properties against C. aspersum using the contact assay method over a period of 24 hours. The total saponin content of P. senegalensis’s methanolic leaf, flower, stem and root extracts was found to be 254.42 ± 0.55, 188.53 ± 0.83, 155.19 ± 0.55 and 68.27 ± 0.79 mg DE/mg, respectively. The standard error LD50 of methanol leaf, flower, stem and root extracts against C. aspersum were determined at 549.54 ± 158.49, 758.58 ± 107.15, 1778.78 ± 114.81 and 1819.70 ± 346.73, respectively. The mortality rate of snails exposed to doses of methanolic extracts of P. senegalensis leaves increased with increasing concentrations. P. senegalensis therefore, contains high concentrations of total saponins and molluscicidal properties against C. aspersum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Practical Application Medicago sativa L. is gaining attention as a sustainable plant‐based food protein. Alfalfa saponins (ASs) typically exist in a glycosylated form in nature, which has poor cell membrane permeability, while the deglycosylated saponins may show better bioactivity. The AS was deglycosylated by β‐glucosidase from Aspergillus niger, and the chemical structures and biological activities, including in vivo assays, of AS and deglycosylated AS (DAS) were determined. The results showed that the half maximal inhibitory concentration for 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl inhibition of DAS was 29.5 µg/mL, demonstrating a significantly higher reducing capacity compared to AS (p < 0.05). The DAS induced 33.8% antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and enhanced the proliferation of human airway epithelial cells (BEAS‐2B) at a concentration of 125 µg/mL. In vivo experiments on C57BL/6 mice fed a high‐fat diet demonstrated that high‐level DAS treatment produced significantly greater hypolipidemic effects compared to AS (p < 0.05). Thus, the AS can be deglycosylated, which leads to an improvement in biological activity, particularly since the DAS exhibits significantly enhanced hypolipidemic activity.Alfalfa saponins were deglycosylated by β‐glucosidase from Aspergillus niger, which contributed to increased bioactivity, particularly its hypolipidemic activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research investigated the nutritional physiology effect of ginseng saponins on Litopenaeus vannamei (L. vannamei) under low-fishmeal diets. In total, five experimental groups were arranged, with 21% fishmeal (high-fishmeal) serving as the positive control (PC), 11% fishmeal (low-fishmeal) serving as the negative control (NC), and 11% fishmeal serving as the addition in all three other groups. Similarly, ginseng saponins (GSP, purity of 2%) were added in the order of 0.1%, 0.3%, and 0.5% (GSP0.1, GSP0.3, and GSP0.5), with an 8-week growth cycle. Both GSP0.1 and GSP0.3 showed significantly higher growth performance (final body weight, FBW; weight gain rate, WGR; specific growth rate, SGR) than the NC group, but significantly lower growth performance than the PC group (P <0.05). However, it was found that there was no significant difference in the body composition of the whole shrimp between the experimental groups. Compared to the PC group, the GSP0.3 group exhibited significantly elevated levels of antioxidant enzymes, total antioxidant capacities (T-AOC), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) (P <0.05). Additionally, significant differences were observed between the PC and GSP0.3 groups regarding the expression levels of sod , cat , and gsh-px (P<0.05). And there was a better morphological organization of shrimp hepatopancreas in the GSP0.3 group than in all other groups. In comparison with the PC group, there was no significant difference in shrimp survival rates after ammonia nitrogen stress with ginseng saponins added (P >0.05). Whereas, in terms of the relative expression levels of the corresponding genes, in shrimp of the GSP0.3 group, the relative expression of antioxidant-related genes sod , cat , and gsh-px were significantly higher than that of the PC group (P <0.05). Caspase3 and p53 , along with bcl-2 and bax , were found to be significantly more expressed in shrimp of the GSP0.3 group than in all other groups (P <0.05). These findings imply that in addition to improving growth performance, adding ginseng saponins at a concentration of 11% fishmeal could improve the antioxidant capacity of L. vannamei as well as its resistance to stress. Therefore, ginseng saponins can be utilized as a functional additive to increase L. vannamei growth performance, enhance antioxidant capacity, and reduce stress in low-fishmeal diets, 0.3% of ginseng saponins is optimal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plants are industrially cultivated and processed serving for specified sectors for human consumptions including cosmetic and personal care products. Where, the consumers' awareness towards sustainability are increasing year by year. Among which, those of the materials derived from the plants produced with good agricultural and manufacturing practices abided with bio-circular-green economy theme, are of eminence. This perspective is in line with the researchers' bioprospective onto natural products. Special attention sheds on saponins, the biosurfactants that will not cause detrimental effects on the environment. Which, plants are regarded as the sustainable sources of these cosmetic substances. However, among tremendous plants that have been continuously explored upon their potential applications. Most of the studies focus on preparation of the saponins and biological activities. Surprisingly, those that are abided with the list published in the European Commission (CosIng) that are of crucially for cosmetic regulation are insufficiently demonstrated, which burden their applications in the sector. This context summarizes the industrial crops that are registered as plant saponin in the CosIng database. Those that are insufficiently exploited on the information required for cosmetic formulations are therefore encouraged to be examined. In addition, multidirectional cosmetic beneficials of the filled plants saponin would be encouraged to be explored. These plants will be properly knowledge managed for their sustainable utilizations as the bio-based materials promising for cosmetic and personal care industrial perspectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The buds of Lonicera japonica Thunb. var. chinensis (Wats.) Bak, commonly named red honeysuckle, have attracted attention because of their bright colors. However, owing to the lack of systematic studies, the potential applications of red honeysuckle are not clear, and its development and utilization have not been well known. Methods: In this study, compared with the buds of L. japonica Thunb. (honeysuckle), the potential applications of red honeysuckle were explored based on biological activities, bio-active components, and sensory flavor combined with widely targeted metabolomics. Results: As a result, in vitro tests showed that it had a stronger antioxidant and a stronger inhibitory effect on the growth of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. There was no cytotoxicity on LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells in its aqueous extract using the CCK-8 method. Moreover, it also had a stronger effect on inhibiting the expression of inflammatory factors such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). The content of its bio-active components chlorogenic acid and cynaroside was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.001) than that of green honeysuckle. Widely targeted metabolomics analysis revealed that 4 volatile metabolites, such as (E)-4-hexene-1-ol and pyrazole, and 21 non-volatile metabolites, such as macranthoside B and oleanolic acid-3- O -glc(1-2)-(ara)-28- O -glucoside ester, were specific in red honeysuckle. Interestingly, 14 specific terpenoid metabolites were triterpenoid saponins, indicating a stronger biological activity in red honeysuckle. The sensory flavor analysis showed that the red honeysuckle had a stronger herbal and lighter floral flavor. Discussion: In conclusion, red honeysuckle had great development value with potential applications in medicines, foods, beverages, pigment additives, and health products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Macroporous resin is an efficient separation technology that plays a crucial role in the separation and purification of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). However, the application of macroporous resins in TCM pharmaceuticals is hindered by serious fouling caused by the complex materials used in TCM. This study examines the impact of ultrafiltration (UF) membrane technology on the macroporous resin adsorption behavior of TCM extracts. In this paper, Bupleurum chinense DC. (B. chinense) water extracts were included as an example to study the effect of UF pretreatment on the macroporous resin adsorption of total saponins. The study results indicated that the adsorption of total saponins constituents from the water extracts of B. chinense on the macroporous resin followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and the Langmuir model. The thermodynamic parameters of adsorption, including enthalpy changes and Gibbs free energies, were negative, while entropy changes were positive. These results demonstrated that the total saponin components form a monolayer adsorption layer by spontaneous thermal adsorption on the macroporous resin, and that the adsorption rate is not determined by the rate of intraparticle diffusion. Following treatment with a UF membrane with an average molecular weight cut-off of 50 kDa, the protein, starch, pectin, tannin, and other impurities in the water extracts of B. chinense were reduced, while the total saponin content was retained at 82.32%. The adsorption kinetic model of the saponin constituents on the macroporous resin remained unchanged and was consistent with both the second-order kinetic model and the Langmuir model; the adsorption rate of the second-order kinetic model increased by 1.3 times and in the Langmuir model at 25 °C, the adsorption performance improved by 1.16 times compared to the original extracts. This study revealed that UF technology as a pretreatment method can reduce the fouling of macroporous resin by TCM extracts and improve the adsorption performance of macroporous resin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pterocephin A is a natural triterpenoid saponin isolated from Pterocephalus hookeri, a traditional Tibetan medicine with slight toxicity, which can induce liver injury in rats. This study aimed to establish a sensitive and reliable UPLC-MS/MS method for exploring the toxicokinetics and tissue distribution of pterocephin A following single intravenous and intragastric administration. Pterocephin A and prosapogenin 1C (internal standard, IS) were extracted using a simple protein precipitation technique with methanol as the precipitant for plasma samples and methanol/acetonitrile = 1:1 (v/v) for tissue samples. UPLC separation was achieved by gradient elution with 0.3 mL/min and a mobile phase consisting of 5 mM ammonium formate (A) and acetonitrile (B) (0–2 min 30% B; 2–4 min: 30–80% B; 4–5 min: 80–98% B; 5–6.5 min: 98% B; 6.5–7 min: 98–30% B; and 7–8 min: 30% B, v/v) with a column temperature of 35 °C. MS spectrometry adopted negative ion scanning mode, primary MS spectrometry adopted full scan monitoring mode, and secondary MS spectrometry adopted targeted MS2 scan monitoring mode. The assay exhibited a linear dynamic range of 0.02–15 μg/mL for pterocephin A in biological samples, with the low limit of quantification set at 0.02 μg/mL. Non-compartmental toxicokinetic parameters indicated that pterocephin A was well absorbed into the systemic circulation and had a long residual time after intravenous (10 mg/kg) and intragastric (60 mg/kg) administration, as it could still be detected after 72 h. Tissue distribution analysis revealed detectable levels of pterocephin A in various tissues, and a high concentration was maintained in the liver after intravenous (10 mg/kg) administration, with the highest concentration being 610.95 ± 25.73 ng/mL and a specific distribution pattern of liver > lung > kidney > intestine > spleen > testes > heart > stomach. The toxicokinetic process and tissue distribution characteristics of pterocephin A were expounded in this study, which can provide relevant data support for further research and clinical application of pterocephin A with its slight toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atopic dermatitis is an inflammatory dermatological disease characterized by persistent scratching and recurrent eczema. Due to the influence of environmental variables on the cause of this disease, there remains an ongoing interest in the development of therapeutic interventions. Previous studies have shown that various plants of the genus Aster and its derived phytochemicals possess efficacy in treating inflammatory-mediated diseases, including atopic dermatitis. Therefore, the present study investigated a potential compound with anti-atopic dermatitis properties derived from Aster koraiensis leaves, specifically targeting HaCaT keratinocyte cells. First, we isolated eleven compounds with three unknown compounds, including two polyacetylenes (1 and 3) and a benzoic acid derivative (4). The chemical structures of the isolates were elucidated by 1D and 2D NMR, specific rotation, acid hydrolysis, and quantum chemical calculations. Next, we treated an A. koraiensis extract and all isolates to HaCaT keratinocyte, followed by stimulation with TNF-α/IFN-γ. Among bioactive compounds, astersaponin J (7) exhibited a significant reduction in the levels of inflammatory cytokines associated with atopic dermatitis at a concentration of 2.5 μM. These findings suggest that chemicals obtained from an A. koraiensis 95% ethanol extract and derived compounds are potential therapeutics to help reduce the immunological response driven by atopic dermatitis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The investigations of snail slime and its possible biological activities have been performed recently. Aim: This study aimed to evaluate the properties of Helix aspersa snail slime (HAS), and carotenoids‐fortified slime (HASC). Methods: Snails were fed with carrots for 10 days. Slime was collected and extracted using water. Saponins identification, antioxidant, collagenase, and tyrosinase enzyme inhibition activities, carotenoids, total phenols, and flavonoids content, were determined. UHPLC–MS/MS analysis was performed for phytochemical characterization. Results: Saponins were detected in the HAS extract only. However, HASC was shown to contain a higher carotenoid content than HAS (29.51 ± 0.4 vs. 18.11 ± 0.2 μg/g). similarly, total phenolic and flavonoid content were higher for the the HASC extract compared to the HAS (182.3 ± 5.2 vs. 150.28 ± 3.3 mg/g equivalent to gallic acid), and (77.62 ± 1.2 vs. 14.19 ± 0.9 mg/g equivalent to quercetin). As expected, the HASC extract exhibited higher antioxidant activity compared to the HAS, using DPPH and the ABTS assays (IC50 = 7.75 ± 0.14 vs. 20.1 ± 0.4 μg/mL), and (IC50 = 7.6 ± 0.26 vs. 19.57 ± 1.4 μg/mL). UHPLC–MS/MS analysis revealed the presence of several phytocomponents of which, hexadecanoic acid and ascorbic acid, were observed in the HASC extract. Furthermore, HASC extract exhibited superior inhibitory activity compared to HAS against collagenase and tyrosinase enzymes (IC50 = 8.4 ± 1.19 vs. 15.3 ± 1.12 μg/mL) and (IC50 = 30.1 ± 0.91 vs. 35 ± 1.3 μg/mL). Conclusion: These findings highlight the potential of HASC as a valuable ingredient in various pharmaceutical applications, due to their content of various phenolic, antioxidants, carotenoids, hexadecanoic, and ascorbic acids. The latter is well known for its great cosmeceutical applications used for slowing the process of skin aging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY: Ilex is known for its rich content of secondary metabolites, particularly triterpenoid saponins. These compounds hold significant value in natural remedies and herbal medicine. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for triterpenoid biosynthesis in plants of this genus remain largely unexplored. In this study, we successfully generated the first chromosome‐scale genome of Ilex hylonoma. The assembly, comprising 20 anchored chromosomes, has an N50 contig size of 2.13 Mb and a scaffold size of 33.68 Mb. Comparative genome analyses with two other congeners with available chromosome‐level genomes suggested that an end‐to‐end chromosome fusion event likely contributed to the reduction in chromosome number from n = 20 to n = 19 within this genus. By integrating transcriptomic and metabolomic data, we identified the gene expression patterns and metabolite profiles of I. hylonoma across three commonly utilized medicinal tissues. We subsequently pinpointed candidate genes involved in the regulation of triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis, including CYP450 genes, UGT genes, and associated transcription factors. Furthermore, yeast heterologous expression analysis revealed that ihyl08363 catalyzed the conversion of β‐amyrin into oleanolic acid, while ihyl04303 catalyzed the C‐2α hydroxylation of oleanolic acid to produce maslinic acid. This integrated analysis provides valuable insights into the biosynthesis of important triterpenoid saponins in medicinal Ilex plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, high‐performance liquid chromatography‐evaporative light scattering detection (HPLC‐ELSD) and HPLC‐mass spectrometry (HPLC‐MS) were employed for the quantitative analysis of steroidal saponins of Semen Allii Fistulosi. The HPLC‐ELSD method was simple, accurate, and repeatable, and the recoveries were 97.91%∼99.77%. Similarly, the HPLC‐MS method was rapid, sensitive, accurate, and reproducible, and the recoveries ranging from 95.61% to 99.70% in the control samples. The sensitivity of the HPLC‐MS method was several times higher than that of the HPLC‐ELSD method. These results collectively demonstrated that these methods are suitable for the content determination of steroidal saponins of Semen Allii Fistulosi and the identification of its plant source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Societal Impact Statement: Globalization and rapid shifts in culture and economy threaten indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) systems, and large intergenerational gaps in this knowledge already exist. Buddleja asiatica is a deciduous shrub or small tree with traditional medicinal applications but is currently largely overlooked as a medicinal resource. This study investigates the traditional uses of B. asiatica in indigenous communities in the Pan‐Himalayan region through ethnobotanical field surveys, with a view to preserving cultural heritage and strengthening economic resilience in these communities, as well as developing B. asiatica as a medicinal resource. Prioritizing the well‐being of mountain communities, this study aims to bridge community development with nature. Summary: Buddleja asiatica Lour. (Scrophulariaceae) is widely distributed across the Pan‐Himalayan region. It has traditional medicinal applications and cultural value, as well as ecological significance. We conducted an ethnobotanical study combining field surveys from Nepal and Xizang, China with a literature review using Web of Science (WoS) to review the ethnobotanical, phytochemical, and pharmacological aspects of this species. Our study highlights the cultural significance of B. asiatica within indigenous communities and, in particular, the use of the leaves to make a starter culture for the preparation of wine. However, an evident intergenerational gap in knowledge transfer exists. The phytochemical investigation revealed the presence of various chemical classes (carbohydrates, terpenoids, flavonoids, saponins, esters, steroids, glycosides, and fatty acids), of which 15 phytoconstituents were first reported from various parts of B. asiatica. The potential medicinal properties of these chemicals include anti‐inflammatory, antioxidant, cytotoxic, antihepatotoxic, antimicrobial, and cholinesterase activities. We combine these lines of evidence to show the prospects for the livelihoods of local people across this region and propose future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Centella asiatica, or pegagan in Indonesia, is a perennial plant used in Indonesian traditional medicine (jamu) and functional food with many biological activities. Those biological activities come from the bioactive metabolites present in C. asiatica. Differences in metabolite pathways in each part of the plant affect the accumulation of metabolites contained, thus impacting its biological activity. Therefore, this study aims to identify and evaluate differences in the distribution of metabolites in each part of C. asiatica, namely leaves, stems, stolons, and roots. Each plant part was extracted using methanol and sonicated for 30 minutes. The metabolites in the samples were separated and detected using UHPLC-QOrbitrap HRMS. Differences in the distribution of metabolites in each part of the plant were evaluated using chemometrics analysis. UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS analysis could positively identify 37 metabolites, most of which belong to the phenylpropanoid, triterpenoid, triterpenoid saponin, and flavonoid groups. Principal component analysis was able to clearly distinguish each part of the plant using the peak intensity of the overall chromatogram and the peak area of the identified metabolites. The different biosynthetic pathways of metabolites in plants could cause a difference in the distribution of metabolites in each plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A crude methanol extract of the roots of Allochrusa gypsophiloides (syn. Acanthophyllum gypsophiloides) (collected from the Tashkent region of Uzbekistan) was chemically characterised by UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS analysis. The results indicate the presence of six major bisdesmosidic saponins derived from gypsogenin, gypsogenic and quillaic acids, including five compounds reported for the first time for this species. The chloroform, methanol and water extracts of A. gypsophiloides showed weak antioxidant and anthelmintic activities. Among the tested extracts, the water extract exhibited the highest level of cytotoxicity in CCRF-CEM and CEM/ADR5000 cell lines with IC50 values of 23.6 and 31.9 µg/mL, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Erythrocytes are susceptible to oxidative stress throughout their lifespan. While compounds like vitamin C can help mitigate oxidative stress, the exploration of natural herbal products continues to be a compelling area of research. To examine the impact of subfractions derived from acidified chloroform fractions of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) on red blood cells in the presence of H2O2 as an oxidant, we assessed the factors associated with erythrocyte aging and oxidative stress. Methods: The maceration technique was employed for extracting fenugreek seeds. Through chromatography, a total of 12 subfractions were isolated from the acidified chloroform extract of fenugreek seeds. Following an initial assessment, four subfractions exhibiting lower erythrocyte toxicity were chosen for further investigation. The objective was to evaluate their impact on erythrocyte aging by measuring the levels of phosphatidylserine (PS), sialic acid, CD47 on the erythrocyte surface, as well as oxidative stress biomarkers. The obtained results were presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD), and data analysis was performed by using ANOVA. Results: The results of this study revealed, that among the 12 subfractions derived from the acidified chloroform fraction of fenugreek, four subfractions demonstrated protective effects against H2O2-induced hemolysis and oxidative stress. Furthermore, flow cytometry analysis indicated that treatment with three of these subfractions led to elevated levels of CD47 and reduced levels of phosphatidylserine on the surface of erythrocytes. Conclusions: The results suggest that the subfractions of fenugreek extract which likely contain a higher concentration of flavonoids and a lower content of saponins could be responsible for the observed protection against erythrocyte aging processes. It appears that fenugreek seeds have the ability to safeguard human erythrocytes from oxidative damage by reducing oxidative stress, preserving the activity of antioxidative enzymes, and maintaining the integrity of erythrocyte structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Bambara groundnut is the indigenous legume in the southern part of Thailand. It contains a seed coat rich in polyphenols, which can serve as natural antimicrobial agents. The extracts from red and white seed coats of Bambara groundnuts, namely RSC and WSC, respectively, were prepared using an ultrasound-assisted extraction process. The extraction yield, total phenolic content (TPC), and antimicrobial activity of both extracts were examined. The RSC extract demonstrated a significantly higher extraction yield (8.35%) than WSC extract (2.34%) (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the TPC of RSC extract (420.98 ± 0.27 mg of gallic acid/g dry extract) was higher than that of WSC extract (28.29 ± 0.91 mg of gallic acid/g dry extract). The RSC extract exhibited stronger inhibition against Shewanella putrefaciens and S. algae than its WSC counterpart. Liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF/MS) analysis indicated that the RSC extract was rich in flavonoids and polyphenols, while the WSC extract contained more triterpenoid saponins. Time–kill kinetics showed that the RSC extract reduced bacterial loads in a dose-dependent manner. Scanning electron microscopic images revealed that drastic bacterial cell membrane damage with a rough surface and the deformation of cells was caused by the extract. Furthermore, confocal laser scanning microscopic (CLSM) images confirmed the inhibition of S. algae biofilm formation by RSC extract. RSC extract also suppressed bacterial motility, induced protein leakage, and reduced extracellular protease activity, thus highlighting its potent bactericidal effects. These findings suggested that the RSC extract rich in phenolic compounds could serve as an antimicrobial agent and hold promise as a natural preservative for perishable foods, especially seafoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are concerns about residues of drugs in meat that are used to prevent coccidiosis in chickens. Natural compounds are an alternative to drugs. Two studies investigated the effect of an extract of Enterolobium cyclocarpum fruits (EEC) in the feed of male Leghorn chickens exposed to Eimeria spp. In the first experiment, the administration of EEC after infection with Eimeria spp. was investigated over 16 days. One thousand chickens were randomly housed in 20 pens of 1 m2 each. The pens were randomly assigned to each treatment. Five treatments were administered, containing 150, 300 and 450 mg/kg of EEC in the feed, the fourth treatment (C) contained 0.5 g/kg of a commercial anticoccidial, and the fifth treatment provided no treatment (WA). The second experiment lasted 18 days. Administration of the EEC began five days before the chickens were infected with Eimeria spp. Four hundred and eighty chickens were randomly allocated to 24 pens of 1 m2. The pens were randomly assigned to each treatment. In the second experiment, the same five treatments were tested and one additional treatment containing 300 mg EEC plus 1 g of polyethylene glycol (PEG)/kg of feed (E300PEG). In the experiment one chickens in the EEC treatments had lower faecal oocyst excretion (OE) on day 14 post infection with Eimeria spp., than chickens in the WA treatment (P < 0.05). A reduction in live weight gain (LWG) was observed in the EEC treatments (P < 0.05). In the second experiment, the excretion of oocysts in chickens from the EEC and E300PEG treatments on day 13 post-infection with Eimeria spp. was the same as in the C treatment and lower than in the WA treatment (P < 0.05). LWG was lower in the EEC treatments than in the C treatment (P < 0.05). However, the Chickens in the E300PEG and C treatments had similar LWG (P > 0.05) suggesting that PEG inhibits the negative effect of EEC tannins on LWG. In conclusion, the addition of EEC to chicken feed reduced both OE and LWG. Treatment with EEC and PEG (E300PEG) reduced the excretion of oocysts without negative effects on LWG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F. H. Chen (PN), commonly known as PN, is a nutritious natural food with a long history of consumption and has traditionally been used for dietary purposes in the form of dried processed products. Currently, developed a dry processing at short time and room temperature (DRST), which is characterized by high efficiency and low cost. However, there are few studies on the impact of DSRT. In this study, the effects of conventional hot air drying (DHA) and the innovative drying technology DSRT on the key components of PN were evaluated for the first time. The results showed that DRST could obtain processed PN products with smaller particle sizes and that DRST‐treated PN could increase the content of five saponins by 1.38% for Ginsenoside Rg1, 0.1% for Ginsenoside Re, 0.83% for Ginsenoside Rb1, 0.16% for Ginsenoside Rd, and 0.36% for PN saponin R1, relative to the content of five saponins that could be increased by conventional DHA. The metabolome results yielded a total of 1401 metabolites identified and analyzed, and 201 metabolites showed significant differences between the two techniques, which were expressed as amino acids, flavonoids, and other nutrient‐active components. The results of this study indicate that the PN products produced by DRST technology have higher nutritional quality compared to traditional processing. This study provides support in the processing of PN and the development of PN products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Panax japonicus C. A. Meyer is renowned for its significant therapeutic effects and is commonly used worldwide. Its active ingredients, triterpenoid saponins, show variation in content among different tissues. The tissue-specific distribution of saponins is potentially related to the expression of vital genes in the biosynthesis pathway. In this study, the contents of five saponins (ginsenoside Ro, chikusetsusaponin IV, chikusetsusaponin IVa, ginsenoside Rg1, and ginsenoside Rb1) in three different tissues were determined by HPLC. Transcriptome sequencing analysis identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis, highlighting significant correlations between saponin contents and the expression levels of 10 cytochrome p450 monooxygenase (CYP) and 3 UDP-glycosyltransferase (UGT) genes. Cloning, sequencing, and prokaryotic expression of UGT genes confirmed the molecular weights of UGT proteins. Gene sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis provided preliminary insights into UGT gene functions. Meanwhile, the function of one UGT gene was characterized in the yeast. These findings advance our understanding of the triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis in P. japonicus and support future research in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and synthetic biology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The indiscriminate use of synthetic surfactants, despite their desirable properties, poses significant environmental risks to ecosystems. This study explores saponins extracted from quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) residues as a sustainable alternative. Saponin extract (SE) with 42% purity, obtained through hydrodynamic cavitation and membrane technology, was analyzed to determine its techno-functional properties. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) was 1.2 g/L, reducing the surface tension (ST) from 72.0 mN/m to 50.0 mN/m. The effects of temperature (30–90 °C), pH (2–12), and salinity (10,000–150,000 ppm NaCl) on ST and the emulsification index (EI) were assessed using a Box–Behnken design. Optimized conditions yielded an ST of 49.02 mN/m and an EI of 63%. Given these characteristics, SE was evaluated as a detergent across diverse swatches. This study showcases the attributes of quinoa-derived saponins, highlighting their potential for eco-friendly detergent applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lonicera japonica Thunb. and Lonicera hypoglauca are famous Chinese medicines used for hyperglycemia; however, the specific compounds that contributed to the hypoglycemic activity and mechanism are still unknown. In this study, the antidiabetic activity of L. japonica buds and L. hypoglauca buds, roots, stems, and leaves extracts was primarily evaluated, and the L. japonica buds and L. hypoglauca buds, roots, and stems extracts displayed significant hypoglycemic activity, especially for the buds of L. hypoglauca. A total of 72 high-level compounds, including 9 iridoid glycosides, 12 flavonoids, 34 organic acids, and 17 saponins, were identified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) combined with the fragmentation pathways of standards from different parts of L. japonica and L. hypoglauca extracts. Among them, 19 metabolites, including 13 saponins, were reported for the first time from both medicines. Seven high-content compounds identified from L. hypoglauca buds extract were further evaluated for hypoglycemic activity. The result indicated that neochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid, isochlorogenic acid A, isochlorogenic acid B, and isochlorogenic acid C displayed significant antidiabetic activity, especially for isochlorogenic acid A and isochlorogenic acid C, which demonstrated that the five chlorogenic-acid-type compounds were the active ingredients of hypoglycemic activity for L. japonica and L. hypoglauca. The potential mechanism of hypoglycemic activity for isochlorogenic acid A and isochlorogenic acid C was inhibiting the intestinal α-glucosidase activity to block the supply of glucose. This study was the first to clarify the hypoglycemic active ingredients and potential mechanism of L. japonica and L. hypoglauca, providing new insights for the comprehensive utilization of both resources and the development of hypoglycemic drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural compounds are important source of desired biological activity which helps to improve nutritional status and brings many health benefits. Ilex paraguariensis St. Hill. which belongs to the family Aquifoliaceae is a plant rich in bioactive substances (polyphenols, saponins, alkaloids) with therapeutic potential including hepatic and digestive disorders, arthritis, rheumatism, and other inflammatory diseases, obesity, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia. In terms of phytochemical research I. paraguariensis has been the subject of most intensive investigations among Ilex species. Therefore, we concentrated on other available Ilex varieties and focused on the content of fatty acids of these shrubs. The fatty acid compounds present in Ilex sp. samples were analyzed by GC-MS. 27 different fatty acids were identified in the extracts. The results showed that many constituents with significant commercial or medicinal importance were present in high concentrations. The primary component in all samples was α linolenic acid(18:3 Δ9,12,15). Differences of this component concentration were observed between cultivars and extensively analyzed by PCA, one- way ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA. Significant correlations between compound concentrations were reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silene viscidula Franch is mainly produced in southwest China. The region has a vast area and rich climate, which has an impact on the quality of the plants due to the differences in distribution between the origins. There is a lack of systematic research on its chemical compounds in the existing literature, and fewer studies have been reported for the active compounds of this plant. Therefore, high-resolution liquid mass spectrometry was used in this study. Sixty batches of Silene viscidula Franch samples from twenty origins in three provinces were analyzed for compounds. A database of chemical compounds of Silene viscidula Franch was established through node-to-node information in the GNPS molecular network, as well as literature records. The ion fragmentation information obtained was compared with the literature data and analyzed and identified by importing the mass spectrometry software PeakView 1.2. Then, the MarkerView t-test was applied to analyze and identify the compounds of Silene viscidula Franch from different origins. Afterwards, the antioxidant activity of Silene viscidula Franch from different origins was preliminarily evaluated using DPPH and ABTS free radical scavenging assays. The results showed a total of 78 compounds, including 34 steroids, 14 triterpenoid saponins, 30 flavonoid glycosides, and other classes of compounds, such as alkaloids. The cleavage patterns of steroids, triterpenoid saponins, and flavonoids in positive-ion mode were also summarized. Based on the p-value of the t-test (p < 0.05), 29 differential compounds were screened out. The relative contents of saponins and steroidal compounds in these samples were found to be associated with antioxidant activity. This study provided a preliminary reference for the establishment of a comprehensive evaluation system for the quality of Silene viscidula Franch. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camellia flavida var. flavida, commonly known as "Jinhua Tea", has its flowers and leaves traditionally utilized as tea and functional food sources. However, there is limited knowledge about its bioactive components and their biological activities. This study isolated ten previously unidentified glycoside compounds from the flowers of Camellia flavida, including three oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins (compounds 1–3) and seven flavonoid glycosides (compounds 4–10), collectively named flavidosides A–J. This study assessed the cytotoxicity of these compounds against a panel of human cancer cell lines and their α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. Notably, flavidoside C showed significant cytotoxicity against BEL-7402 and MCF-7 cell lines, with IC50 values of 4.94 ± 0.41 and 1.65 ± 0.39 μM, respectively. Flavidoside H exhibited potent α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, with an IC50 value of 1.17 ± 0.30 mM. These findings underscore the potential of Camellia flavida in the development of functional foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saponins, consisting of sapogenins as their aglycones and carbohydrate chains, are widely found in plants and some marine organisms. Due to the complexity of the structure of saponins, involving different types of sapogenins and sugar moieties, investigation of their absorption and metabolism is limited, which further hinders the explanation of their bioactivities. Large molecular weight and complex structures limit the direct absorption of saponins rendering their low bioavailability. As such, their major modes of action may be due to interaction with the gastrointestinal environment, such as enzymes and nutrients, and interaction with the gut microbiota. Many studies have reported the interaction between saponins and gut microbiota, that is, the effects of saponins on changing the composition of gut microbiota, and gut microbiota playing an indispensable role in the biotransformation of saponins into sapogenins. However, the metabolic routes of saponins by gut microbiota and their mutual interactions are still sparse. Thus, this review summarizes the chemistry, absorption, and metabolic pathways of saponins, as well as their interactions with gut microbiota and impacts on gut health, to better understand how saponins exert their health-promoting functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The buds of Lonicera japonica Thunb. var. chinensis (Wats.) Bak, commonly named red honeysuckle, have attracted attention because of their bright colors. However, owing to the lack of systematic studies, the potential applications of red honeysuckle are not clear, and its development and utilization have not been well known. Methods: In this study, compared with the buds of L. japonica Thunb. (honeysuckle), the potential applications of red honeysuckle were explored based on biological activities, bio-active components, and sensory flavor combined with widely targeted metabolomics. Results: As a result, in vitro tests showed that it had a stronger antioxidant and a stronger inhibitory effect on the growth of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. There was no cytotoxicity on LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells in its aqueous extract using the CCK-8 method. Moreover, it also had a stronger effect on inhibiting the expression of inflammatory factors such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). The content of its bio-active components chlorogenic acid and cynaroside was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.001) than that of green honeysuckle. Widely targeted metabolomics analysis revealed that 4 volatile metabolites, such as (E)-4-hexene-1-ol and pyrazole, and 21 non-volatile metabolites, such as macranthoside B and oleanolic acid-3-O-glc(1-2)-(ara)-28-O-glucoside ester, were specific in red honeysuckle. Interestingly, 14 specific terpenoid metabolites were triterpenoid saponins, indicating a stronger biological activity in red honeysuckle. The sensory flavor analysis showed that the red honeysuckle had a stronger herbal and lighter floral flavor. Discussion: In conclusion, red honeysuckle had great development value with potential applications in medicines, foods, beverages, pigment additives, and health products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Lactic acid bacteria fermentation is a beneficial bioprocessing method that can improve the flavor, transform nutrients, and maintain the biological activity of foods. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum dy-1 fermentation on the nutritional components, flavor and taste properties, and composition of saponin compounds and their hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities. The results suggested that the total polyphenol content increased, and the soluble polysaccharides and total saponin contents decreased in fermented bitter melon juice (FJ) compared with those in non-fermented bitter melon juice (NFJ). The determination of volatile flavor substances by GC-MS revealed that the response values of acetic acid, n-octanol, sedumol, etc., augmented significantly, and taste analysis with an electronic tongue demonstrated lower bitterness and higher acidity in FJ. Furthermore, UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS testing showed a significant decrease in bitter compounds, including momordicines I and II, and a significant increase in the active saponin momordicine U in the fermented bitter melon saponin group (FJBMS). The in vitro assays indicated that FJBMS exhibited similar antioxidant activities as the non-fermented bitter melon saponin group (NFBMS). The in vitro results show that both NFBMS and FJBMS, when used at 50 μg/mL, could significantly reduce fat accumulation and the malondialdehyde (MDA) content and increased the catalase (CAT) activity, while there was no significant difference in the bioactivities of NFBMS and FJBMS. In conclusion, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum dy-1 fermentation is an effective means to lower the bitterness value of bitter melon and preserve the well-known bioactivities of its raw materials, which can improve the edibility of bitter melon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Natural compounds are essential targets in anticancer research due to the toxic effects of current chemotherapy and drug resistance. Methods: Saponin extraction from Alcea rosea L. was carried out using 20% methanol and liquid-liquid extraction coupled with the Solid phase extraction (SPE) approach. The saponin fraction was explored for its cytotoxic activity against Huh-7 and MDA-MB-231 cancer cell lines and a non-cancer cell line (HUVEC). The cytotoxic activity and oxidative stress were assessed using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and 2,7 dichlorofluorescein diacetate dyes respectively. The apoptotic potential was investigated using DAPI and acridine orange-ethidium bromide dual staining. Result: The saponin fraction exhibited cytotoxic potential against the cell lines investigated. The IC50 values of the saponin fraction were 49.02, 300 and 325 µg\mL against Huh-7, MDA-MB-231 and HUVEC cell lines, respectively. The cytotoxicity for the extract was dose-dependent. The saponin fraction calculated selectivity index (SI) value indicated high selectivity towards Huh-7 cells (SI= 6.62) compared with normal HUVEC cells. Huh-7 cells treated with saponin fraction showed cellular and nuclear morphological changes, such as apoptotic body formation and chromatin condensation, as observed using light and fluorescent microscopy. However, further investigation is required to assess the the saponin fraction as a potential therapeutic agent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To investigate the phytochemical content and toxicity profile of Rauwolfia vomitoria Afze (Apocynaceae). Method: Qualitative phytochemical screening of hydro-alcohol extract (HAE) of R. vomitoria roots was carried out followed by acute toxicity evaluation in nine Swiss albino Wistar rats using two phases of Lorke's method. In the 14 days subacute study, thirty-two Swiss albino rats were randomly divided into 4 groups of 8 rats each. Group A received 0.5 mL Tween 80 daily and served as control, while groups B, C and D was administered 125, 250 and 500 mg/kg/day of HAE respectively. All the rats were monitored daily for signs of toxicity. Selected haematological and biochemical parameters were assessed at the termination of experiment. Results: Alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids and saponins were present in HAE. The estimated oral median lethal dose (LD50) was greater than 5000 mg/kg. Daily administration of HAE for 14 days resulted in 15.63 % mortality of animals across the groups by day 14 with significant loss in total body weight in group D animals on day 8 (p < 0.05), and in group C animals on day 11 (p < 0.05) and day 15 (p < 0.001). The dose of 500 mg/kg/day significantly (p < 0.05) increased haemoglobin concentration but reduced (p < 0.05) white blood cell count, while the dose of 250 mg/kg/day significantly (p < 0.05) reduced alkaline phosphatase levels but increased serum albumin levels (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Rauwolfia vomitoria may be safe on acute basis but repeated administration of high doses over many days needs to be done with caution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asparagus cochinchinensis is a member of the Asparagaceae family whose medicinal part is the dried root tuber. The distribution of A. cochinchinensis and its secondary metabolites are closely associated with environmental factors, such as climate and soil properties. By establishing and optimizing a maximum entropy model, we analyzed and predicted the distribution pattern and migration direction of suitable habitats for A. cochinchinensis and determined the main environmental factors affecting the accumulation of secondary metabolites. Under current climatic conditions, the area of suitable habitats for A. cochinchinensis (208.38 × 104 km2) accounts for 21.71% of the land area of China, and the areas of lowly, moderately, and highly suitable areas were 64.15 × 104 km2, 113.66 × 104 km2, and 30.57 × 104 km2, respectively. Under future climate scenarios, the total area of suitable habitats hardly changes. The area of highly suitable habitats significantly decreases under the SSP1‐RCP2.6 scenario (to 83.22% of the current value) and the SSP3‐RCP7 scenario (to 48.94% of the current value), but eventually increases to 112.86% of the current value under the SSP5‐RCP8.5 scenario, which indicates that A. cochinchinensis might adapt better to a high‐carbon‐emissions scenario. Under different climate scenarios, low‐impact areas mainly occur in southern China and will correspond 92.07% of the current suitable area. Highly suitable habitats primarily occur in the southeastern Sichuan Basin, northern Guangxi, eastern Guizhou, and western Hunan. HPLC analysis showed that the content of protodioscin (0.373%) and protogracillin (0.044%) in S2 was the highest. The total saponins contents of S1 and S2 were the highest, which were 35.6586 and 33.1262 mg/g, respectively. The total polysaccharide content of S9 was the highest (16.9467%). The total contents of saponins and polysaccharides in A. cochinchinensis were significantly, but oppositely, correlated with temperature, precipitation, and other factors. This study has identified environmental factors affecting the growth and quality of A. cochinchinensis, which has guiding significance for resource conservation and site selection for large‐scale cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Triterpenoid saponins from the Astragalus species possess valuable effects (cytotoxic, adjuvant, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, antiviral, etc.). Some also have immunomodulatory activities. Astragalus glycyphyllos is distributed in Bulgaria and mainly accumulates cycloartane saponins. From the overground parts of the species, a triterpenoid cyloartane-type saponin (AGOS3) was isolated by different chromatographic techniques. A quantitative LC-MS method for the determination of the saponin was developed and validated. Further, the saponin was loaded in copolymeric micelles based on triblock copolymers of polyethylene oxide and polypropylene oxide (Pluronics). The LC-MS method was applied on the developed micelles to determine their loading degrees. Afterwards, the possible pharmacological effects of free and encapsulated in polymeric nanoparticles of triterpenoid saponin (1, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 µg/mL) were evaluated in isolated murine macrophages and lymphocytes in vitro. Free AGOS3 stimulated proliferation only at the highest tested concentrations (50–100 µg/mL), and the effect was more evident in isolated macrophages. Interestingly, AGOS3-loaded polymeric micelles caused concentration dependency and statistically significant increases in the proliferation of both isolated lymphocytes and macrophages, even at a lower concentration (10 µg/mL). These results could serve as the basis for further research on the immunomodulatory effect of this saponin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by lipid accumulation and foam cell formation in the arterial wall. Promoting macrophage autophagy has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy against atherosclerosis. Dipsacoside B (DB) is an oleanane-type pentacyclic triterpenoid saponin extracted from Lonicerae flos with potential anti-atherosclerotic properties. In this study, we investigated the effects of DB on atherosclerosis progression in ApoE−/− mice fed a high-fat diet and explored the underlying mechanisms in oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL)-induced foam cells. DB treatment significantly reduced atherosclerotic lesion size, improved plaque stability, and regulated lipid metabolism without impairing liver and kidney function in ApoE−/− mice. In vitro studies revealed that DB dose-dependently inhibited ox-LDL internalization and intracellular lipid accumulation in RAW264.7 macrophages. Mechanistically, DB induced autophagy, as evidenced by increased autophagosome formation and upregulated expression of autophagy markers LC3-II and p62 both in vivo and in vitro. Inhibition of autophagy by chloroquine abolished the antiatherosclerotic and pro-autophagic effects of DB. Furthermore, DB treatment increased LC3-II and p62 mRNA levels, suggesting transcriptional regulation of autophagy. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that DB exerts anti-atherosclerotic effects by inhibiting foam cell formation via autophagy induction, providing new insights into the pharmacological actions of DB and its potential as a therapeutic agent against atherosclerosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The composition and stability of the microbial community structure of roots and root zone soils play a key role in the healthy growth of plants. We examined the distribution characteristics of phenolic acids and saponins, as well as microbial communities in the root space (root endosphere, rhizoplane soil, rhizosphere soil, and bulk soil) of healthy and root rot disease-affected Panax notoginseng. The results showed that after infection with root rot, the rhizoplane soil exhibited significant decreases in organic matter and hydrolyzable nitrogen and significant increases in available phosphorus, available potassium, and total nitrogen. The contents of phenolic acids (except benzoic acid) and ginsenoside Rg2 in the root endosphere significantly increased. Ferulic acid and p-hydroxybenzoic acid in the rhizoplane soil significantly increased. Rhodococcus increased significantly in the root endosphere, rhizoplane, and rhizosphere soil; Nitrospira decreased significantly in the rhizoplane, rhizosphere, and bulk soil; and Plectosphaerella decreased significantly in the root endosphere and rhizoplane soil. Moreover, the accumulation of most autotoxins can promote the growth of pathogens. In summary, the spatial autotoxic substances and microbial community differences in P. notoginseng roots jointly induce the occurrence of root rot. IMPORTANCE Panax notoginseng is highly susceptible to soil-borne diseases induced during planting, and root rot, which usually occurs in the root and stem parts of the plant, is the most severe. We divided the root environment of P. notoginseng into four parts (root endosphere, rhizoplane soil, rhizosphere soil, and bulk soil) and studied it with unplanted soil as the control. In this study, we examined the changes in the content of autotoxic substances in the root space of P. notoginseng, along with the interplay between these substances and microorganisms. This study revealed the mechanism underlying root rot and provided a theoretical basis for alleviating continuous cropping obstacles in P. notoginseng. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anemone baicalensis Turcz., a botanical species with a rich historical background in traditional medicine for detoxification and insecticidal applications, possesses a vast, yet largely unexplored, therapeutic potential. This study primarily focused on conducting a qualitative phytochemical analysis of the plant, determining the active ingredient content and antioxidant activity of various solvent extracts. The qualitative phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of 12 different types of phytochemicals within the plant. Utilizing ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry, we identified 11 active ingredients in 4 solvent extracts. Notably, the methanol extract was found to contain high concentrations of total carbohydrate, total monoterpenoid, total phenolic, total tannin, and total triterpenoid. In the antioxidant experiment, the methanol extract demonstrated superior scavenging abilities against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical, 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonicacid) diammonium salt, superoxide anion radical, and hydrogen peroxide, outperforming other extracts in chelation experiments aimed at reducing iron and metal ions. Consequently, the methanol extract was selected for further investigation. Subsequent ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-quadrupole-time of flight-mass spectrometry analysis revealed that the methanol extract contained 39 compounds, primarily phenolic compounds and triterpenoid saponins. Three stability assessments confirmed the extract's stability under high temperatures, varying pH levels, and simulated gastrointestinal processes. Additionally, oil stability testing demonstrated its antioxidant capacity in extra virgin olive oil and cold-pressed sunflower seed oil media. An oral acute toxicity experiment conducted on mice not only confirmed the absence of acute toxicity in the methanol extract but also provided a dose reference for subsequent gastric protection experiments. Notably, the methanol extract exhibited significant gastroprotective effects against ethanol-induced gastric lesions in rats, as evidenced by histopathological and biochemical analyses. Specifically, the extract reduced levels of malondialdehyde, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase while increasing glutathione, nitric oxide, and catalase, indicating its gastroprotective mechanism. These findings suggest that the methanol extract from the aerial part of Anemone baicalensis could be a promising therapeutic agent for conditions associated with oxidative imbalances. They underscore the plant's potential therapeutic benefits and offer valuable insights into its antioxidant properties, thereby broadening our understanding of its medicinal potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seven new oleanane- type triterpene saponins, lysimaponins A-G, were isolated from aerial parts of Lysimachia laxa Baudo. Their chemical structures have been elucidated by analysis of spectroscopic and chemical methods. All compounds were evaluated for their antibacterial effects against Microcystis aeruginosa, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, V. harveyi, V. vulinificus, V. cholerae , and V. alginolyticus. All compounds showed potent antibacterial activities against the cyanobacteria M. aeruginosa with IC50 values ranging from 14.4 ± 1.2 to 35.3 ± 2.2 µg/mL. Compounds 1, 2, 4 - 7 inhibited V. parahaemolyticus with MIC values ranging from 64 to 256 µg/mL. The results suggested that saponins from L. laxa could be potential anti-cyanobacteria agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microencapsulation has the potential to address the stability issues associated with vitamin A. This study examined the effectiveness of emulsifying a saponin–chitosan polyelectrolyte complex to encapsulate vitamin A. Utilizing response surface methodology (RSM), the effects of the chitosan, saponin, and vitamin A contents on various response variables were measured to optimize the formulation. The optimized emulsion was characterized through fluorescence microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), storage stability, and release profile. Fluorescence microscopy showed that vitamin A was evenly distributed throughout the optimized emulsion. The polyelectrolyte complex and vitamin A were shown to interact hydrophobically and electrostatically by FTIR analysis. The DSC results verified the effective encapsulation and showed that vitamin A heat stability had been enhanced. Study on storage stability demonstrated that during a 2‐month storage period, the encapsulated vitamin A remained stable. Moreover, vitamin A was significantly released from the encapsulated form at pH 1.2, based on release assays. In conclusion, saponin–chitosan polyelectrolyte coating proved to be a potentially useful new material for the stability and applications of vitamin A in a range of formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fenugreek plant (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is traditionally known for its anti-diabetic properties owing to its high content of furostanolic saponins, which can synergistically treat many human ailments. Non-enzymatic protein glycation leading to the formation of Advanced Glycation End products (AGE) is a common pathophysiology observed in diabetic or prediabetic individuals, which can initiate the development of neurodegenerative disorders. A potent cellular source of glycation is Methyl Glyoxal, a highly reactive dicarbonyl formed as a glycolytic byproduct. We demonstrate the in vitro glycation arresting potential of Fenfuro®, a novel patented formulation of Fenugreek seed extract with clinically proven anti-diabetic properties, in Methyl-Glyoxal (MGO) adducts of three abundant amyloidogenic cellular proteins, alpha-synuclein, Serum albumin, and Lysozyme. A 0.25% w/v Fenfuro® was able to effectively arrest glycation by more than 50% in all three proteins, as evidenced by AGE fluorescence. Glycation-induced amyloid formation was also arrested by more than 36%, 14% and 15% for BSA, Alpha-synuclein and Lysozyme respectively. An increase in MW by attachment of MGO was also partially prevented by Fenfuro® as confirmed by SDS-PAGE analysis. Glycation resulted in enhanced aggregation of the three proteins as revealed by Native PAGE and Dynamic Light Scattering. However, in the presence of Fenfuro®, aggregation was arrested substantially, and the normal size distribution was restored. The results cumulatively indicated the lesser explored potential of direct inhibition of glycation by fenugreek seed in addition to its proven role in alleviating insulin resistance. Fenfuro® boosts its therapeutic potential as an effective phytotherapeutic to arrest Type 2 diabetes. HIGHLIGHTS: Fenfuro® is a novel patented formulation of Fenugreek seed extract with more than 45% furostanolic saponins and anti-diabetic property free from any side effect as established through clinical study. In the present study, the role of Fenfuro® in arresting in vitro AGE formation and glycation-induced amyloid formation has been demonstrated with the help of three amyloidogenic proteins, namely Human Lysozyme, Human alpha-synuclein and Bovine Serum Albumin using Methyl Glyoxal as the glycating agent. A 0.25% (w/v) ethanolic solution of Fenfuro® resulted in more than 50% arrest in glycation with simultaneous prevention of aggregation as demonstrated by native PAGE, DLS and inhibition of development of Thio-T positive amyloid like entities. The studies collectively aim toward the development of a safe therapeutic method for arresting protein glycation through direct physical intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This chapter reports the ethnomedicinal uses, the phytochemistry, and the antiproliferative potential of Raphia vinifera Palisot de Beauvois (Arecaceae). It is a perennial plant found in several countries of West and Central Africa. Its different parts are used in traditional or folk medicine for the realization of protection rituals for children or against witchcraft. In addition, the decoction of its fruit is consumed for the treatment of gonococcal and other urinary tract infections. The extracts obtained from this part of R. vinifera are rich in several phytoconstituents including alkaloids, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, and glycosides. Several products belonging to these classes of secondary metabolites have been isolated from extracts of the mesocarp of its fruit. These are mainly (25R)-spirost-5-ene-3β, 22β-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1⟶2)-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside (1), raphvinin 3 (4), diosgenin (5), deltonin (7) and progenin III (8), mostly belonging to the saponin class. The methanol extract of this plant and its derived compounds showed interesting antiproliferative activities, both on drug sensitive human and animal cancer cell lines and on those with multidrug-resistant phenotypes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Humoral bactericidal activity was first recognized nearly a century ago. However, the extent of inter-individual heterogeneity and the mechanisms underlying such heterogeneity beyond antibody or complement systems have not been well studied. Methods: The plasma bactericidal activity of five healthy volunteers were tested against 30 strains of Gram-negative uropathogens, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli, associated with bloodstream infections. IgG and IgM titers specific to K. pneumoniae strains KP13883 and KPB1 were measured by ELISA, and complement inhibitor was used to measure the contribution of complementinduced killing. Furthermore, MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry was conducted to determine the metabolomic components of plasma with bactericidal properties in 25 healthy individuals using Bayesian inference of Pearson correlation between peak intensity and colony counts of surviving bacteria. Results: Plasma bactericidal activity varied widely between individuals against various bacterial strains. While individual plasma with higher IgM titers specific to K. pneumoniae strain KP13883 showed more efficient killing of the strain, both IgM and IgG titers for K. pneumoniae strain KPB1 did not correlate well with the killing activity. Complement inhibition assays elucidated that the complement-mediated killing was not responsible for the inter-individual heterogeneity in either isolate. Subsequently, using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry on plasmas of 25 healthy individuals, we identified several small molecules including gangliosides, pediocins, or saponins as candidates that showed negative correlation between peak intensities and colony forming units of the test bacteria. Conclusion: This is the first study to demonstrate the inter-individual heterogeneity of constitutive innate humoral bactericidal function quantitatively and that the heterogeneity can be independent of antibody or the complement system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silybum marianum, commonly known as milk thistle, is renowned for its potent antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties, primarily attributed to its active compound, silymarin. This study investigates the antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects of Silybum marianum extract against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatotoxicity in Wistar rats. The extract was prepared through ethanol-based solvent extraction and subjected to preliminary phytochemical screening, revealing the presence of tannins, alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, glycosides, steroids and terpenoids. Hepatoprotective efficacy was assessed by measuring serum biochemical markers such as AST, ALT, ALP, total bilirubin and MDA levels, alongside histopathological analysis of liver tissues. Rats treated with Silybum marianum extract showed significant improvements in liver function and oxidative stress markers compared to the CCl4 control group. The extract also enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). These findings suggest that Silybum marianum holds therapeutic potential for protecting the liver against oxidative damage and inflammation. Further clinical studies are warranted to validate its efficacy and optimize therapeutic applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined Madhuca longifolia leaves phytochemically and fingerprinted them using Thin Layer Chromatography. Traditional Indian medicine uses M. longifolia as a versatile herb, however its bioactive components have not been scientifically proven. The leaves were sequentially extracted using chloroform, petroleum ether, methanol, ethanol, water, and other polar solvents. Qualitative phytochemical screening found alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, proteins, saponins, steroids, tannins and terpenoids. These bioactive compounds were most prevalent in ethanol and methanol extracts. TLC analysis separated and identified the primary components, yielding a unique fingerprint for the most prevalent chemical with an Rf value of 0.49. This fingerprint can guide pharmaceutical quality control and future research. This study supports M. longifolia's long history of usage in herbal medicine and shows its potential for medical research. The compounds' medical and pharmacological effects need more study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated the potential antidiabetic and hypolipidemic effects of an ethanolic extract derived from Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Wild flowers in an alloxan-induced diabetic rat model. Thirty healthy young adult male Wistar rats were divided into five groups: Normal control, Diabetic control, Glibenclamide (standard drug), Saraca asoca flower extract (SAFE) at doses of 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg. Diabetes was induced using alloxan monohydrate, and blood glucose levels were monitored on days 0, 7, 14 and 21. Lipid profiles, including triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and VLDL cholesterol were also assessed. The results demonstrated a dose-dependent reduction in blood glucose levels with administration of Saraca asoca flower extract. Both doses (250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg) showed significant antihyperglycemic activity compared to the diabetic control group. Additionally, treatment with the extract led to favorable changes in lipid profiles, including decreased levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, VLDL cholesterol and increased HDL cholesterol levels. These findings highlight the potential of Saraca asoca flower extract as a natural intervention for managing diabetes and improving lipid metabolism. The observed pharmacological effects may be attributed to bioactive constituents such as flavonoids, tannins, and saponins present in the extract. Further exploration of underlying mechanisms and long-term safety and efficacy assessments are necessary to validate its clinical applicability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperammonia-producing bacteria (HAB) are a class of microbes present in the stomach of ruminants, responsible for the rapid rate of ammonia production from protein degradation beyond the capacity of these animals for their utilization. Thus, ruminant nutritionists are interested in decreasing ruminal protein degradation and ammonia genesis by focusing on controlling the activity of HAB. The investigations of the present study were carried out to determine predominant hyperammonia-producing bacteria in the rumen of buffaloes, their isolation and characterization, as well as the inhibition of these isolates with various sources of plant secondary compounds (tannins, saponins, and essential oils). Studies employing high-throughput sequencing of amplicons of the 16S rRNA gene from genomic DNA recovered from enrichment culture of HAB of buffalo rumina indicated that, at the phylum level, Proteobacteria (61.1 to 68.2%) was the most predominant HAB. Acidaminococcus was most predominant among the identified genera. In vitro experiments were conducted with enrichment culture of buffalo rumen contents incubated with different types of feed additives such as essential oils (eucalyptus oil, lemon grass oil, and clove oil) and extracts of plants (Sapindus mukorossi fruits and Ficus bengalensis leaves), each at graded dose levels. The reduction in ammonia production by clove and lemon grass oils was evident due to the presence of major bioactive compounds, especially eugenol and limonene, which have strong antimicrobial activity. However, clove oil and Indian soapberry/reetha (Sapindus mukorossi) fruit were found to be promising and effective in reducing the growth, protease production, and ammonia production of HAB culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Platycodon grandiflorum (P. grandiflorum) is a commonly used medicinal plant in China. Transcriptome sequencing studies of different tissues of P. grandiflorum have been widely conducted. However, studies on transcriptome sequencing and expression patterns of key genes in the saponin synthesis pathway of Tongcheng P. grandiflorum, a high-quality medicinal resource of different years, are relatively limited. Results: This study involved transcriptome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis of the roots from annual, biennial, and triennial P. grandiflorum in the Tongcheng area. After data filtering and assembly, we obtained 111.44 Gb of clean base data, including 742,880616 clean reads. We identified 5,156 differential expression unigenes between at least two sample groups, with differences noted among annual, biennial, and triennial P. grandiflorum plants. GO enrichment analysis annotated 3509, 1819, and 1393 DEGs in comparison TC1vsTC2, TC1vsTC3, and TC2vsTC3, respectively. Furthermore, KEGG enrichment analysis identified 16 genes encoding key enzymes in the terpene skeleton biosynthesis, sesquiterpene and triterpene biosynthesis pathways, including SE, AACT, FPPS, DXR, HMGR, HMGS, and DXS. The results of qRT-PCR experiments showed that most of the genes were most highly expressed in annual P. grandiflorum. Conclusions: The present study provided transcriptomic data from the roots of Tongcheng P. grandiflorum of different years, which provides critical bioinformatics data on the growth and development of P. grandiflorum, laying a foundation for further research on saponins and identifying key enzymes involved in this process across different growth stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Camellia oleifera meal (COM), a primary byproduct of oil-tea processing, often being discarded or used as a low-grade fertilizer due to its low value. The underutilization has become a significant bottleneck hindering the high-quality development of the oil-tea industry. In this study, the production of antibiotic-free feed additives through the solid-state fermentation of COM by Acremonium terricola was investigated. Our findings revealed that a saponin concentration of 5 mg/mL significantly enhanced the production of cordycepic acid (70.4 mg/g), ergosterol (3.32 mg/g), and chitin (110 mg/g) by A. terricola. This concentration also promoted chitin production and the activities of peroxidase (POD) and Na+/K+-ATPase, thereby maintaining cellular homeostasis and energy balance in A. terricola. Solid-state fermented rice bran (RB), wheat bran (WB), and desaponificated COM (containing 2.6 mg/100 g of tea saponin) were all found to be beneficial for increasing the production of cordycepic acid and ergosterol. The blend of COM, RB, and WB in the ratio of 15:65:20 was particularly advantageous for the production and accumulation of cordycepic acid and ergosterol, yielding 1.54 and 1.43 times, 1.27 and 1.37 times, and 1.98 and 5.52 times more than those produced by WB, RB, and COM alone, respectively.Meantime, the difference in contents of sugar and protein in A. terricola cultures (ATCs) using combination were not significant compared to RB and WB. These results indicated that COM can partially replace foodstuffs or food by-products to prepare antibiotic-free feed additives by A. terricola. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of waterlogging on Chinese yam tuber malformation development in directional trough were studied by setting waterlogging treatments. The results showed that the soil in directional trough was close to saturated moisture for a long time and the yam tuber malformation and decay were induced without timely drainage after waterlogging. The longer the waterlogging treatment time, the more serious the tuber malformation and decay. Waterlogging may induce the formation of tuber malformation by significantly increasing the contents of auxin (IAA) and gibberellin (GA3) in the tuber. Waterlogging also significantly reduced the contents of starch, crude protein and saponins in tuber, thus decreased the function and nutritional quality of Chinese yam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]