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Rural adolescents are at risk for firearm-related injury and death. In response, professional organizations have called for communication between adolescents, parents, and providers about firearms. A shared understanding of firearms between providers and families can facilitate effectiveness of health interventions. However, few studies engage adolescents in identifying their perception of common firearm terminology. The current study aimed to understand how adolescents in rural communities defined firearm-related terms including firearm, carrying, and handling, and differences in terms based on prior firearm training. Data were from a mixed methods community-based participatory study of 93 adolescents from rural Washington state. Thematic qualitative coding identified themes for firearm (gun, weapon, projectile, and tool), carrying (on you/your person, transportation, and holding), and handling (actively using, safe use, and holding) and differences between those with prior firearms training. Findings provide insight into perceptions of firearm-related terms for adolescents, an often-neglected voice, and inform rural policy and prevention efforts.

Continuous professional development is critical for Extension staff, and many agriculture-focused Extension employees are tasked with outreach related to a wide variety of natural resource topics. The purpose of this study is to help prioritize trainings needed by Kansas Extension agents and specialists based on their current level of knowledge and interest in staying up to date on 18 different natural resource topics. Responses to a statewide survey were analyzed using the Borich model. Results indicate priority professional development needs related to soil health; effects of climate; invasive species, harmful algal blooms; and groundwater, surface water, and air quality.

Albeit its critical role in the development of the agriculture sector, the delivery of Extension and Advisory Services (EASs) in Tanzania has remained unsatisfactory and has had a limited impact on the sector. Among others, conventional approaches used in providing EASs have been found inadequate in meeting the priority needs of their clientele. Besides, they tend to demand many frontline extension agents who are few and are unable to serve farmers effectively. Thus, most recently, Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) have the potential to overcome many of the challenges associated with the conventional provision of EASs. As a result, various innovative ICT-based approaches have been blended with conventional EASs to improve the service to clients. These include the use of community radio stations, TV programs, telecentres, Mobile Phones (SMS), and web-based and mobile-based farmers' advisory information systems. This study draws on the work of the ICT-based Village Knowledge Centre (VKC) established in the Rungwe District in Mbeya Region. We explore the experiences of various stakeholders in using the VKC in the delivery of extension services. Challenges hindering the functioning of VKC are highlighted and recommendations to improve the functioning of VKC and consequently, the delivery of EASs are drawn.

Agriculture extension staffs are encouraged to attempt more efficient methods to enhance their competency through digital webinars or technical guidance, in Bahasa Bimbingan Teknis (Bimtek) programs. The research aims to explore factors influencing the intention and behavior of agricultural extension staff towards the Technical guidance online Ministry of Agriculture in Special Region Yogyakarta, Indonesia. This research included the Behavior Intention (BI) and Use Behavior (UB) models with significant construct. The research used the quantitative method and analyzed PLS-SEM. One hundred eighty extension staffs participated, chiefly 34-42 years old. All of the indicators passed the outer model assessment. The analysis results conclude that significant effects are Attitude to BI, Control Behavior to BI, Perceived Usefulness to BI, and Behavior Intention to UB. The perception of extension staffs about Technical guidance online can enhance their performance to continue using it in obtaining agricultural technology information, extension materials, information on agricultural policies, and the latest agricultural development programs. The insignificant constructs are Subjective Norm, Motivation, and Perceived Ease to Use. The validated research model explains 61% of the variance (R2 = 0.61) in Attitude, Perceived Usefulness, and Control Behaviour towards Behavior Intention (BI). Moreover, BI explains 8.9% of the variance (R2 = 0.089) in UB of Technical guidance online. This research found that BI and UB have Q2 values of 0.538 and 0.077. The practical implication could be applied as preliminary development planning studies to enhance the efficiency of Technical guidance online as Bank Data.

Purpose: Participatory extension programmes (PEPs) are a well-known approach to achieve change on an on-farm level. This study examines whether there is a change in on-farm resilience due to PEP participation, by identifying whether participation leads to an increase in resilience capacities, and which aspects of the programme contribute to this. Design/Methodology/Approach: A case study was selected in Aotearoa New Zealand, where 33 interviewees had participated in a 3-year PEP. Findings: Findings show that participation in the PEP led to an increase in the resilience capacities "robustness" and "adaptability." Attributes via which the PEP contributed to this are: (i) increasing "openness" by connecting to others in the community and learning collectively, (ii) increasing "diversity" by using new tools and diversifying land use, and (iii) improving "system reserves" by building labour and feed resources. robustness adaptability openness diversity system reserves Practical implications: A resilience framework is applied to evaluation that helps decision-makers identify the multifaceted effects of PEP participation. Insights from the study also contribute to future design of agricultural PEPs, by enabling resilience-building attributes through a novel 'resilience wheel' assessment tool. Theoretical implications: Novel theoretical insights from this study include that PEPs can be evaluated by using a resilience framework and show which resilience attributes are specifically important to establish change via PEP participation. Originality/value: This research is the first to evaluate the effect of PEP participation from a resilience perspective.

Purpose: Integrated crop-livestock systems (ICLS) can foster agroecological transitions. However, knowledge on how extension services influence such systems is still lacking. The manuscript analyzes ICLS advisors' perceptions of the conditions toward recoupling crops and livestock at the farm level. Methodology/Approach: We conducted and analyzed 20 semi-structured interviews with advisors and project managers currently working with ICLS in Brazil and France. Findings: The results revealed the following advisors' activities undertaken to support recoupling crop and livestock systems: i) gathering ICLS knowledge by building a network as a knowledge source, along with mobilizing and combining tools and skills, ii) communicating and facilitating arrangements between farmers and farmers' groups, iii) supporting ICLS co-design by assisting farmers in setting goals and plans, and iv) assisting on-farm transitions by supporting implementation and monitoring. Practical implications: This research highlights the key role of advisors in the transition toward the recoupling of crops and livestock at the farm level. ICLS advising could be improved and simplified with better-adapted tools, training to acquire knowledge, and skills specific to the ICLS context. Theoretical implications: Systemic thinking, facilitation, communication, and mobilizing a broad network to exchange knowledge are key requirements for advising complex systems such as ICLS. This is a typical case of a 'knowledge brokering' approach in which advisors engage in systemic facilitation to encourage innovation adoption. Originality: Our analysis provides promising insights into the specific advisor experiences in the transition towards adopting agroecological approaches, such as ICLS. This research opens avenues for future research to encourage ICLS adoption.

Purpose: To study community interactions and thus to highlight potential ways to support farmers' professional transition toward more sustainable agriculture. Methodology: Mixed methods with a questionnaire, interviews, peer-to-peer interactions, and a theoretical framework to analyze drivers of indeterminacy that can trigger a break in farmers' routines. The study took place in a digital agricultural community. Findings: We highlighted three potential drivers of indeterminacy in a professional transition process like Agroecological Transition (AET), as well as the role of community facilitator. Practical implications: Integrating into farmers' training and extension services the issues of valuation to discuss how practices and objects are prised and evaluated. This can open a way for new meanings and values that support AET and support a departure from usual standards. Theoretical implications: Applying inquiry theory as an epistemic proposition to examine support for farmers' professional transitions and their training in relation to their real work situation. Originality: We propose an articulation between the study of a digital platform and the analysis of the drivers of engagement in an agroecological transition process.

Purpose: To assess the potential of a paper diary for strengthening accountability in public agricultural extension services. Therefore a paper diary called 'Diary for Agricultural Extension Officers' was developed and tested in Uganda. Design/methodology/approach: A qualitative case study research approach was applied for the development and assessment of the diary. Data were collected using focus group discussions and individual face-to-face interviews. Data analysis was conducted using the content analysis method. Findings: Paper diaries can strengthen accountability in public agricultural extension services by enabling alignment of the extension activities of the field agents to the goals of the extension service and to the needs of the beneficiaries, in addition to mitigating information asymmetry about the extension activities. However, the implementation of paper diaries requires sensitization of the beneficiaries on the need for verification and feedback. Practical Implications: This study is centred around addressing a practical problem of field agents' accountability and results have the potential to improve management of public services such as agricultural extension. Moreover, the findings could also be relevant for all types of organizations and service delivery methods. Theoretical implications: This study expanded the boundaries of the principal-agent theory by applying it to the accountability of agricultural extension services using paper diaries, which have hitherto not been widely applied. Originality/value: This study advances the debates of accountability and coordination of agricultural extension services by assessing the potential of a paper diary as the literature has to date assessed the potential of electronic diaries.

Purpose: The study was aimed at measuring farmers' helpline services quality in India using a standardized multi-factor scale (HELPQUAL) developed as part of this study. Design/methodology/approach: The present study is based on 360 farmers' and 45 experts' responses gathered using telephonic interviews and mailed questionnaires during the year 2021-22. The principal axis exploratory factor analysis, parallel analysis and Likert scaling were utilized to assess the scalability of items and identify underlying factors. Findings: The 19 item HELPQUAL consisting of four factors, namely dependability, accessibility, understandability and communication effectiveness, was developed. The reliability of the overall scale was excellent ([alpha] = 0.908), whereas the factor-wise reliability was excellent to acceptable (i.e. [alpha] = 0.918 to 0.72). The convergent validity of the scale was also excellent (0.819). Practical implications: The HELPQUAL scale developed is the first to measure the quality of agricultural helpline services. There are several farmers' helpline services across the globe, however, no standardized scale has been developed to date for measuring their quality. Moreover, HELPQUAL is highly sector-specific, and factors like accessibility and understandability are different from the dimensions of generic SERVQUAL and SERVPERF scales. Therefore, it is advantageous and appropriate in the quality evaluation of agricultural extension services. Originality/value: This study provides the first standardized scale for measuring the quality of farmers' helpline services. Theoretical implications This study supports the argument that widely used SERVEQUAL and SERVPERF scales and their dimensions lack universal applicability in service quality measurement.

Cooperative Extension employees and primary volunteers have opportunities to improve agricultural literacy among community members, yet little is known about the agricultural literacy proficiency of these community educators. It is generally assumed that Extension workers and volunteers are agriculturally literate; this study sought to provide evidence of existing agricultural literacy proficiency and identify high and low knowledge domains in Kansas, New Mexico, and Utah participants. The following objectives guided the study: 1) Describe the agricultural literacy proficiency of participants by state and focus area, 2) Determine the influence of years of service on agricultural literacy proficiency, and 3) Identify the strengths and weaknesses of Extension professionals and volunteers related to agricultural literacy. The Judd-Murray Agricultural Literacy Instrument (JMALI) assessment was used to capture data. Results showed that Extension professionals and volunteers were either factually literate or applicably proficient. Data indicated that role, years of service, and career stage had no significant relationship with assessment instrument score. We also determined that participants showed a high domain knowledge of agriculture and its connection to the environment but struggled to answer questions related to current topics of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Further research is needed to understand better why early career professionals and younger volunteers had proficiency scores like those with fifteen or more years of experience. The study shows the need for ongoing professional development for Extension employees and primary volunteers focusing on STEM integration and knowledge-based instruction.

Liberating Structures (LS) provide a user-friendly toolkit to shift group power dynamics and allow all stakeholders to contribute. We explored the novel use of LS in soil health extension to conduct high-engagement events with diverse stakeholders. Our goals were to promote social learning, networking, and to encourage innovation. Soil health themes emerged highlighting specific practices, and the necessity of addressing broader scope issues of education, economics, and policy. Participants reported increased knowledge of soil health, professional connections, and forecasted participation in soil-health-promoting activities. Participants also expressed a sense of community, expanded perspectives, and appreciation of the co-development process.

The study was carried out to evaluate influence of participation of in and out of school youth in decision-making on showcasing success stories by young agri-preneurs for motivation of adolescents in rural areas to implement agricultural programmes for self-reliance. The first objective evaluated influence of the level of exposure to showcasing success stories on the level of implementation using a Likert scale coded 1 to 10. The second objective determined how youth in and out of school rated strategies proposed to increase their participation in decision making on showcasing success stories using a 5 point rating scale. The study was carried out in Kisii and Nyamira counties region, Kenya in 2019-2021. Survey research design was used. Stratified, purposive and simple random procedures were applied in sampling of respondents. The in-school youth comprised of fourth forms enrolled in school agriculture for the Kenya certificate of secondary education examination (KCSE). There were 361 youth sampled from 36 secondary schools of 3 different categories. The out of school youth consisted of 161 young people out of 280, that had similarly studied agriculture in their schooling days and are registered with 75 youth groups promoting agricultural activities for livelihood. The schools and youth groups are spread in 5 different farm types typical of Kenyan farming systems. The farm types were used as sampling points to provide varied segments of youth in exposure to farming activities, opportunities for livelihood and challenges in the application of vocational skills acquired in school agriculture for self-reliance. Results show that gender of youth in and out of school does not have a significant difference in the level of participation in decision making on showcasing success stories in agripreneurship. School youth were significantly more exposed to success stories than out of school. Youth in and out of school were in concurrence that strategies 5, 6, 4 and 3 were more significantly very important than the rest in increasing their participation in decision making in showcasing events. Strategy 5 on decision making is rated as outstanding by both in-and-out of school youth. The strategy 5 prioritizes formation of agribusiness clubs at community level in rural areas where successful agri-preneurs could mentor the out of school youth, share ideas, and experiences to motivate them and acquire more and specialized agricultural vocational skills for livelihood. There is a positive significant and linear correlation between the level of participation in decision making on showcasing success stories in agripreneurship and the level of implementation of agricultural programmes by youth in (R = 0.30, p < 0.01) and out (R = 0.438762, p < 0.01) of school. So, showcasing success stories could considerably contribute to learning experiences, acquisition of more and specialized skills, and motivate implementation of the programmes for self-reliance.

Mushroom production is a small-scale business unit in rural areas. The Life Long Learning for Farmers (L3F) Programme aims to enhance the socio-economic conditions for them, increasing their access to and use of knowledge and technology. This study evaluates the outcomes of the L3F Programme at the community level. Data were collected through a pre-tested questionnaire survey. The sample consisted of 30 L3F farmers. Farmers' achievement was assessed by the Farmer Performance Index (FPI). Results indicate that mushroom farmers have scaled up their production; have improved their productivity; designed new experiments to minimise the impact of pests and diseases; focused on environmental sustainability and scientific mushroom production; and improved the quality of packaging. The mobile app Bimmal Govi, blended with Information and Communication Technology, helped them to move with the latest technological advancements. The L3F Programme has increased the standards of mushroom production, helping the farmers become promising entrepreneurs.

An evaluation study of the Lifelong Learning for Farmers (L3F) program was undertaken in two sites; in the central and northern regions of Uganda. Propensity Score Matching (PSM) was used to measure the impact of the program on crop and household income, as well as the empowerment levels of its participants. The two sites had differences not only in geographical location but in historical background and implementation of the program, which may have influenced the livelihood outcomes. Despite these differences, the results of the study confirm the potential of the L3F approach to raise participants' crop and household income relative to non-L3F counterparts, significantly so for women participants. There is also sufficient evidence to confirm that L3F positively contributes to farmer empowerment, and, subsequently, their livelihood. The paper draws lessons for scaling the empowerment process using the lifelong learning for farmers' model in Uganda.

This study aims to investigate how the use of an "among"-based mentoring model can improve competencies in vocational education at an agricultural vocational school in Yogyakarta and the social impact that this has. Qualitative research methods were applied in this study, with data being collected through questionnaires, field observations, and a literature study. The results indicate that using an among-based mentoring model for agricultural education at the Yogyakarta Agricultural Vocational School falls into the "good" or "acceptable" category. The social impact of the extension helped improve the intimate relationships between students and the instructor. Students gained the ability and courage to convey various topics, and open communication encouraged stronger social behavior. When stronger social relationships are built, the extension workers could identify the expectations of farmers and provide education about developing rice seeds and improving the quality of organic rice production. The novelty of this research lies in the use of the among-based mentoring model, which was developed based on the local philosophical wisdom of the people of Yogyakarta Province. The hope is that this will help solve the problems in delivering agricultural extension in Indonesia. The expected implication is that government and educational institutions will work together to encourage the development of organic farming systems and agricultural startup businesses and consequently improve the welfare of the broader community.

The purpose of this research was to identify how the knowledge creation process (KCP) takes place among Suyusama, an organization that carries out specific extension functions and advisory services, and the rural communities in Nariño, Colombia. Specifically, the study determined how new knowledge was created, disseminated, and materialized into products, services or systems. Colombia, as a country emerging from conflict, faces considerable challenges to improve rural livelihoods in its agricultural sector. To gain productivity and food security within a sustainable management of natural resources requires a conceptual framework for planning and implementing programs to strengthen agricultural extension and advisory systems. Grounded Theory Methodology was employed in order to create theory from the systematic analysis of data, obtained from field observations and in-depth interviews with members of the local community organizations. The result was a theoretical explanation of the KCP that occurs from the autonomous work of the community with the accompaniment of a mentor organization in a multicultural and diverse meeting scenario, where the dialogue of knowledge and cooperation is promoted by integrating traditional and contemporary knowledge. This work is also an academic contribution to exemplify the distinction between tacit and explicit knowledge and the interorganizational ontological dimension in which a knowledge-creation spiral takes place in a rural context.

This study determined policy initiatives for improving the contributions of university agricultural education and extension institutions to environmental and sustainable development (ESD) in agriculture. The study was carried out in Cross River State. Survey research design was adopted for the study. The population for the study of 534, comprising 195 registered farmers who have continuously participated in ADP farmer field school training from the State; 70 graduate extension personnel; 167 final year agriculture students and 102 lecturers. Agricultural education programme in the Universities in Cross River State was used for the study. The study adopted a triangulation technique involving mixed methods of data collection. Both instruments were face validated by three experts in the field of agriculture with a reliability coefficient of 0.83 obtained through Cronbach alpha reliability method. Data collected were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and independent t-test statistic. The study identified (17) policy initiatives that could improve the contributions of agricultural education and extension institutions to ESD in agriculture in Cross River State. It was recommended among others that the identified policy initiatives should be integrated into university agricultural education and extension institutions and properly implemented.

Purpose: Agricultural extension services in poor countries often identify opinion leaders based on criteria such as wealth and social status. We explore the effectiveness of this top-down approach by analysing the role of so-called model and nodal farmers in the diffusion of malt barley in a highland community in Ethiopia. Research approach: We use a retrospective case study design where we combine quantitative network analysis with qualitative data. Findings: Nodal farmers played a more central role in knowledge diffusion of the technology than model farmers. While model farmers were wealthier and better connected to the local authorities, nodal farmers were socio-economically more similar to their fellow farmers. Nodal and model farmers, as well as farmers closely connected to them, had a significantly higher adoption index than the rest. Practical implications: The diffusion of knowledge is an important condition for the adoption of modern agricultural technologies, but it is not enough, particularly when access to external inputs is limited. Moreover, relying on assumed opinion leaders has its limitations and may even reinforce existing inequalities. Theoretical implications: This paper has shown the complementarity of network approaches. We propose network approaches such as social network analysis to identify community brokers who emerge from bottom-up or clan-based, political, knowledge networks that mediate access to agricultural technologies. Originality: Our combined research approach differs from the mainstream of studies in this field that employ either ethnographic fieldwork or (spatial-)econometric methods. We aim to create a bridge between the often separated worlds of (technical) agronomic research, (qualitative) rural sociology, and (quantitative) econometric analysis.

Purpose: To evaluate pluralistic Extension and Advisory Services (EAS) systems performance and outcomes, and share the experiences made with applying a participatory semi-quantitative approach allowing for cross-country comparability. Design/methodology/approach: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) developed the 'Extension and Advisory Services (EAS) System -- Yardstick' (EAS-Y), a semi-quantitative assessment approach relying on expert-based scores to evaluate the EAS system performance on the one hand, and users' scores to measure the system outcomes on the other. The tool was applied in three countries, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Peru. Findings: Results revealed an overall weak performance on most assessed criteria. Experts pointed out a lack of adequate policies addressing agricultural extension, insufficient funding, and poor infrastructure. On the other hand, the increased focus on sustainability, increased inclusiveness levels, and steady uptake of digitalization technologies are areas where progress was recently made. On the outcomes side, users perceived EAS contributed mainly to acquiring technical skills, while less to entrepreneurial and social skills. Practical Implications: EAS-Y represented a user-friendly and cost-effective solution to identify performance gaps and assess outcomes in a semi-quantitative way. Therefore, we consider the latter has the potential to be applied to prioritize areas for intervention and guide decision-making processes. Theoretical implications: The commonly existing data gap not allowing for a quantitative evaluation of pluralistic EAS systems can be overcome using a participatory evaluation tool that relies on expert and user's judgments. Originality/Value: We used an innovative evaluation approach to assess pluralistic extension systems in three Latin American countries.

Purpose: To explore the structures and processes within agricultural advisory organisations that may enhance absorptive capacity (AC) and determine how organisations develop their AC. Design/methodology/approach: A qualitative explorative case study of advisory services in Norway, which are structured as farmer cooperatives. Interviews, document analysis, and internet information are applied. Findings: Strong social mechanisms are needed to realise the potential AC in an organisation. Advisory organisations with incorporated research and development (R&D) can translate findings from both their own research projects and external sources, which increases their absorptive capacity and boosts service innovation. Further, systematic emphasis on continuous learning strengthens AC, as do networking and internal communications. Practical implications: By improving the incorporation of R&D, continuous learning and networking, advisory service organisations can benefit from the Agricultural Knowledge and Innovation System (AKIS). Ultimately farmers can receive more updated and relevant services for their farms. Theoretical implications: Incorporation of R&D, continuous learning and networking are significant social integration mechanisms that can improve a firm's AC. Originality/value: Previous studies on AC have shown that it is important for innovation. This paper sheds additional light on how AC can be improved.

Purpose: Farmers experience poor health outcomes and are considered 'hard to reach'. Agricultural advisors ('advisors') are uniquely positioned to support and signpost farmers on health issues. This paper explores the acceptability and terms of reference of a potential health role for advisors, and offers key recommendations for developing a bespoke farmers' health training programme. Methodology: Following ethical approval, eleven focus groups were conducted with farmers (n = 4), advisors (n = 4), farming organisations (n = 2) and farmers' 'significant others' (n = 1). Utilising Thematic Content Analysis, transcripts were coded iteratively and emerging themes were grouped into primary and subthemes. Findings/practical implications: Our analysis identified three themes. 'Scope and acceptability of a potential health role for advisors' examines how participants envision and are receptive to such a role. 'Responsibilities, boundaries and self-care' considers both a health promotion and 'health connector' advisory role -- normalising health conversations and sign-posting farmers to services/supports. Finally, 'trouble-shooting potential obstacles to advisors assuming a health role' reflects on the barriers that may impede advisors capacity or potential to have a broader health role. Theoretical implications/original value: Within the context of the stress process theory, findings provide unique insights into how advisory can mediate stress and contribute to farmers' health and wellbeing.

Purpose: Facilitation of learning enhances innovation through overcoming innovation barriers and supporting learning outcomes. However, little is known about how public Extension and Advisory Services (EAS) facilitate learning to help adapt to particular climate stressors. This article investigates the role of public EAS in facilitating learning to enhance innovation in a flash flood-affected farming context. Design/methodology/approach: The research adopted flash flood-affected rice farming in Bangladesh as a case and collected data with actors involved in various extension approaches using interviews and focus group discussions. Findings: Public EAS should involve a range of relevant actors, including the private sector and scientists, and jointly evaluate with farmers and provide feedback on the effectiveness of various crop cultivation strategies for flash flood adaptation. Public EAS needs to deliver the necessary instrumental support and resources to achieve learning outcomes and enable farmers to make desirable changes to farm activities. Practical implications: Policy makers need to develop policies for the capacity development of public EAS staff and provide adequate resources so that public EAS can facilitate learning approaches to support discussions on local concerns and the use of local knowledge, experiences, and resources for flash flood adaptation. Theoretical implications: Facilitation of learning to support adoption of technological innovations is not sufficient in the context of flash flood adaptation. Facilitation should support discussions on effective utilisation of natural and common resources for the flash flooding context. Originality/value: The study investigated the ways public EAS can facilitate learning to overcome barriers to innovation and support learning outcomes in a flash flooding context.

Purpose: The aim of the research was to analyze the impact of the regional innovation system on the efficiency and productivity enterprises dedicated to protected agriculture in Hidalgo, Mexico. Methodology: The regional innovation system was analyzed by identifying the innovation networks. Subsequently, a typology of enterprises was generated according to the networks in which they participate and an analysis of variance and comparison tests of Scheffé means between clusters. Findings: In the regional innovation system, the networks were made up of government institutions, teaching and research institutions, and suppliers of inputs and services, where the latter have the highest degrees of articulation. Also, positive effects were identified in the efficiency indicators of the enterprises related to the networks made up of government institutions, teaching and research institutions, and the extension services. Practical implications: The identification of these interactions is essential for the design of public policies for the promotion of innovation. For example, for the design of a smart extension program that articulates all the actors and that all benefit from their interactions. Theoretical implications: The study reveals the positive influence of the regional innovation system on enterprises. In addition, it rekindles the discussion on the relevance of the State in the operation of innovation systems, the role of universities in the generation of knowledge and the extension service in the diffusion of new knowledge, information and practices. Originality/value: The study generates important knowledge about the regional innovation system and about the design of an innovation management strategy.

This study was designed to understand the current state of wildlife-friendly landscape maintenance practices and the associated barriers and motivations among Florida green industry professionals. A Delphi technique to achieve consensus, along with descriptive survey questions, was used to facilitate feedback from Florida-based green industry professionals and Extension professionals. The expert panel identified 55 wildlife-friendly landscape activities, 25 barrier items, and 25 motivator items. Descriptive findings showed that green industry professionals believe, on average, Florida residents request wildlife-friendly maintenance services less frequently than wildlife-friendly landscape services are offered by Florida green industry professionals. Consensus findings demonstrated the barriers with the greatest agreement were a lack of public awareness about wildlife-friendly landscaping, its ecological and environmental benefits, professional focus on profit, homeowner association (HOA) regulations, and demand for formal landscape aesthetics. Consensus findings also revealed Florida green industry's major motivators were clients' demand for native, Florida-Friendly plants and wildlife-supporting landscapes, the desire to promote the company as wildlife-friendly, and public interest in native and Florida-Friendly Landscaping. Extension professionals, along with policymakers, educators, and program planners should reduce the identified barriers and expand on the motivators to encourage green industry professionals to engage in landscape maintenance activities that support wildlife.

Controlling unwanted annual bluegrass (Poa annua L.) in desirable turfgrass species often relies heavily on herbicide use. As a result, increasing populations of herbicide-resistant annual bluegrass have become a concern. In 2018, a university research and extension initiative began addressing the increasing herbicide-resistant annual bluegrass epidemic. Preliminary findings produced by this research initiative were presented to golf course employees at the 2022 Golf Course Superintendents Association of American Educational Conference in San Diego, California. Findings were presented by a panel of scientists working on various annual bluegrass research sub-objectives. A survey was designed to match the sub-objectives within this panel presentation and determine what recommendations the attendees were most likely to use. The survey also identified environmental zones where participants originated and what turfgrass species they are managing in various areas of the golf course. The goal of sharing these survey findings is to assist turfgrass extension specialists and managers interested in designing annual bluegrass management programs that match stakeholder needs. Survey results determined that extension material pertaining to controlling annual bluegrass with cultural practices would interest the largest stakeholder cross section regardless of environmental turfgrass zone. Another major topic was annual bluegrass emergence patterns for herbicide timing, which was the most important or interesting topic for golf course employees in the warm-season turfgrass environmental zone.

The 21st century has brought with it unforeseen challenges and influential trends that will have significant impact of the livelihood and wellbeing of Georgia residents. Extension personnel within Georgia can extend their mandate by identifying issues that represent present and near-present threats and use these issues to inform programming and direct resource allocation. The conceptual basis for this study relied upon the community capitals framework and the consensus-building theory. Data were collected using a three-round Delphi process, with an expert panel comprised of 19 Extension leadership and administrative personnel. Descriptive statistics, including mean importance scores and absolute frequency counts, were computed. A final list of 21 unique issues resulted from the Delphi process and was analyzed thematically using the constant comparative method. Five heuristic themes resulted from this analysis: 1) Investment in Youth and Adults, 2) Agricultural and Rural Economic Development, 3) Agriculture and Food Safety Information, 4) Resource Access and Availability, 5) Social and Personal Economic Concerns. Comparison with the community capitals framework revealed that multiple capitals interacted within each of the resulting themes. Utilizing the Delphi technique in conjunction with the community capitals framework enables extension professionals to compare community resources and strengths and may allow for greater efficiency in addressing critical issues. The immediate efforts of extension personnel should be directed towards addressing issues within the Investment in Youth and Adults and Resource Access and Availability themes. We recommend using the associated community capitals as strategic entry points for further discussion and program development.

Purpose: This paper deals with the system level empirical analysis of Extension and Advisory Service (EAS) characteristics in India which help in identifying the functional nature of a pluralistic extension system. Design/Methodology/Approach: The study uses the 'Best Fit' framework for analysis of EAS of 36 organisations and applies criteria of functional advisory services proposed by Prager et al. Findings: Drawing knowledge from diverse sources; appropriate cooperation between them; a stable or growing workforce of field staff; staff receiving regular training and the use of a wide range of advisory methods by EAS providers were the positive aspects contributing to functional EAS. Advisory topics covered and clients group orientation was not uniform and inclusive. Time spent on advisories and other activities varied considerably among the different categories of organisations. Despite limitations, public EAS providers still play an important role in cementing all EAS providers in a pluralistic extension system and reaching out to the unreached. Practical implications: System level evaluation of EAS in a country highlights the functional and dysfunctional components of pluralistic EAS which can be strengthened or fixed for improving EAS support to farmers. Theoretical implications: The study depicts the application of the Best Fit Framework for system level evaluation of pluralistic EAS in a sub-national context. The conceptual framework for assessing the functionality of the EAS system is mainly drawn using the theories of New Institutional Economics and Operational Management. Originality/Value: The uniqueness of this study is that it evaluates EAS from a systems perspective and empirically identifies the functional and dysfunctional aspects while considering it as a part of the Agricultural Knowledge and Innovation System (AKIS).

Rural stress is the physiological reaction brought upon by internal and socioeconomic stressors characteristic of rural residents. This type of stress is exacerbated by the complex issues facing rural populations and serves to inhibit the growth of vibrant, resilient communities. The current study sought to construct and validate an instrument intended to quantify perceptions of rural stress among neighbors and communities. The proposed scale was confirmed to have robust content, internal structure, and consequential validity. An exploratory factor analysis indicated one variable accounted for 57.74% of the total variance, while a one-way between subjects ANOVA found a statistically significant effect of group on scale scores under rural-urban continuum (RUC) conditions. One implication from these findings is that changes in communities may function as predictors of stress. Agricultural and extension educators hold a unique position that allows them to interact with the community on a daily basis. We recommend that they leverage this position to educate residents on the effects of stress, reduce the stigma associated with help-seeking behaviors, and discuss available stress management resources. Future research should consider modifying the instrument to focus on individual levels of stress instead of perceptions of stress within the community.

This article reports on a technology stewardship training program to promote ICT leadership development with agricultural extension practitioners in Sri Lanka. Researchers used a multi-method approach with a single embedded case study. Data were collected using a pre-course survey, formal course evaluation, classroom observation, and semi-structured interviews with participants. Kirkpatrick's four-level evaluation model was used to structure analysis of the results. Findings from this study show a positive response to technology stewardship training among agricultural extension practitioners in the course, that learning objectives of the course are achievable when offered as an in-service training program, that self-confidence with ICT is improved, and that some participants applied their learning in a post-course activity. Results from the study also raise a number of considerations for future course design in order to better support digital leadership development in practice. Technology stewardship training shows promise as a form of ICT leadership education for agricultural communities of practice in Sri Lanka and elsewhere. This article contributes to a better understanding of the role of social learning among communities of practice in agricultural extension services, and in contributing to effective use of ICT for agriculture development more broadly.

There has been a dramatic shift in how people engage with agriculture over the past 50 years in the United States, leading to little interaction between consumers and the farm. Despite extension initiatives to communicate with urban consumers about agriculture, the disconnect between consumers and agricultural producers continues to grow. Research has shown consumers rely primarily on the media for information about agriculture resulting in misconceptions about its impact on the environment. Consumers' negative views about agriculture's impact on the environment may lead to support for and implementation of environmental policies that create issues for agricultural producers rather than policies that support both production agriculture and the environment. This study, guided by audience segmentation and framing theory, sought to explore differences in public perspectives regarding agriculture's impact on the natural environment, specifically with rural, urban, and suburban residents. Data were collected from 797 Georgia residents living in rural, urban and suburban areas using an online survey instrument. The results found perspectives on agriculture's impact on the environment were moderately high and bimodal; both positive and negative. Statistically significant differences were found between urban and suburban residents' positive perspectives on agriculture's impact on the environment and between urban, suburban, and rural residents' negative perspectives on agriculture's impact on the environment. The findings imply extension educators need to tailor outreach programs based on the rurality of residents in order to effectively communicate with audiences, particularly when combatting negative framing with urban audiences.

Competence-based education and training (CBE/T) has been implemented in Ethiopia to develop the competences of (future) professionals and to improve their performance. However, empirical evidence that demonstrates the effectiveness of CBE/T is scarce. Positioning the study within the theory of strategic alignment and comprehensive competence-based training, we used the authentic core job task 'On-Site Helping of Farmers during the Planting of Maize', of Development Agents as problem context and conducted an experimental-longitudinal research study including multirater performance assessment. The study compared competence development of the Development Agents who received training that could be characterized as 'High-CBT' (N = 33) and 'Low-CBT' (N = 32). 'High-CBT' means that in these training programmes, principles of competence-based training were used more completely than in the 'Low-CBT' programmes. Experts rated the competence levels of the Development Agents and Development Agents rated their own competence levels. Both groups did that before and after the training. Individual Development Agent performance was also rated by Trained Assessors. Longitudinally, Development Agent performance data was collected during one production year at three points in time. Development Agent's competence development in the 'High-CBT' training condition was higher than in the 'Low-CBT' condition. Observations made on each Development Agent's performance by Trained Assessors both in the Farmer Training Centres and in the authentic job situations, generally confirmed better performance of the 'High-CBT' group compared with the 'Low-CBT' group. The finding contributes to the state of research on the relationship between competence development and performance improvement, which is theoretically postulated although less empirically tested.

This study aims to fill in the gap in literature on the state of academic engagement in Sri Lanka by investigating types of outreach engagement activities, outreach mechanisms, and attitudes of academic agriculturalists toward outreach. An online questionnaire survey was conducted among the academics (stratified random sample of 257) across eight faculties of agriculture in the state universities of Sri Lanka. According to the results, the average number of outreach activities per academic per year was 2.9, and the majority spent less than 5% of their working time on outreach activities, indicating low involvement in outreach by the academics. However, they held positive views on outreach engagement. Generally, the academics engaged in outreach activities through personal or informal individual contacts. Findings help provide guidelines for strategies to improve outreach engagement by academics at department, faculty, university, and national levels in Sri Lanka.

Purpose: To assess the extent to which privatised extension service, which is premised to be demand-driven, delivers downward accountability to smallholder farmers who are both owners and users of agricultural services. Design/methodology/approach: The research collected data through focus group discussions with smallholder tea farmers and key informant interviews after which the information were corroborated with semi-structured interviews with 104 smallholder farmers. Findings: Our findings show that KTDA (Kenya Tea Development Agency) extension service has in recent years embraced methodologies that allow two-way information exchange and farmers' involvement in planning, implementing and evaluation of extension programmes. While this transition has provided opportunities for increased accountability and empowerment of smallholder farmers, downward accountability is limited by among others; presence of multiple accountabilities, a heavy top-down governance structure, higher incentives for upward accountability, limited resourcing of extension delivery, excessive workload and unrealistic targets on the part of extension staff and weak extension-research-farmer linkages. Practical implications: The findings of this study may be used by policymakers, extension practitioners and organisations delivering extension services to improve downward accountability and quality of advisory services Theoretical implications: The paper contributes to the debate on outcomes of privatisation on extension provision using the accountability lens in an area dominated by perceptions on costs and payment for the services. Originality/value: The literature on downward accountability on privatised extension services is lacking. The paper also extends the framework for assessing the performance of pluralistic extension services to develop and apply a framework for assessing downward accountability in privatised extension.

Purpose: Agricultural innovation implies sharing information between researchers and farmers. Acknowledging the value of the other partner's knowledge is a preliminary step to facilitate agricultural interactive models. Traditionally, researchers' knowledges have been dominant, and farmers' knowledges have been underestimated. A large number of innovation papers pay attention to farmers' attitudes, interests, perceptions, barriers or drivers to change their practices. However, there is not so much information about researchers' point of view. The present paper analyses researchers' perceptions about farmers' knowledges and information sources. Design: It is based on a survey of 156 agricultural researchers mostly from public institutions in Spain. Methodology/approach: Descriptive statistics and principal component analysis (PCA) focused on researchers' perceptions of farmers' knowledges and information sources. Findings: This paper finds that there are two distinct profiles of researchers according to their perceptions on the relevance of knowledges and information sources for farmers. However, both profiles shared the view of 'own experience' as a highly relevant source for farmers' knowledges. Practical implications: It advises how to promote knowledge sharing according to different researchers' perceptions of farmers' knowledges and information sources. Theoretical implications: This paper classifies agricultural researchers according to their perceptions offarmers' knowledges and information sources. This classification enriches the discussion about agricultural interactive knowledge models. Originality/value: This paper pays attention to researchers' perceptions of farmers' knowledges and information sources. It particularly focuses on multi-actor approaches and the integration of farmers' and researchers' knowledges.

Purpose: This paper argues that large-scale agricultural programmes embedded with the Agricultural Innovations Systems (AIS) thinking helps in facilitating innovations. Design/Methodology/Approach: The study adopted a qualitative approach involving focus group discussions, key informant interviews and secondary document analysis. This approach helped to obtain an in-depth understanding of the processes involved, why and how innovation takes place. Findings: The design and implementation of the MiDA programme had elements of the AIS embedded. This helped to contribute to success in areas that aligned and failures in areas that fell short. Stakeholders encountered implementation challenges that did not ensure reflective learning, conversely, some actors worked independently of others, mimicking linear extension approaches. Practical Implications: The future of extension and research in Ghana should not be prescriptive (top-down) but fully integrate farmers and wider stakeholders in the design and implementation of agricultural investment programmes. This is premised on addressing challenges relating to trust, effective leadership and entrepreneurship. Theoretical Implications: Adds on to the limited use of AIS as a conceptual and operational tool in supporting large-scale agricultural investment in the global south by incorporating AIS thinking in policy formulation and implementation of large-scale programmes. Originality/Value: This article adds to the unbalanced literature in Sub-Saharan Africa on the use of AIS in the design and implementation of large-scale programmes. Additionally, it highlights the use of AIS in extension and research in facilitating innovations.

Purpose: To assess the performance of agricultural extension managers and the factors influencing it in the case study of Uganda. Design/methodology/approach: Secondary data was analysed using descriptive statistics and econometric models. Findings: The amount of extension grant received and the education of the extension manager positively influence extension managers` performance, whereas voter turnout has the opposite effect. Practical Implications: This study is important for understanding the institutional capacity to implement well-managed and effective public services, such as agricultural extension, which are significant for development. It presents a novel methodology for secondary data analysis, which could be applied to other fields and countries. Theoretical implications: This study expands the theoretical boundary for analysing performance in agricultural extension by illustrating the use of unique performance indicators that have not been widely applied. The study contributes an innovative method to conceptualise the determinants of extension managers` performance using secondary data. Originality/value: This is the first study to examine the performance of agricultural extension managers as the literature has thus far focused on agricultural field agents and organisations.

New communication methods and technology continue to emerge and evolve -- as do societal trends -- making it paramount that Extension professionals stay abreast with the preferred communication channels of potential clientele. By being aware of clients' preferred communication channels, Extension professionals can increase the number of participants who benefit from their work while also improving the quality of the message being delivered. The present study examined the preferred communication channels of potential Extension clientele specifically when gathering information regarding their community. Specifically, a non-probability opt-in sampling procedure was employed whereby respondent (N = 3,347) communication channel preferences were analyzed from an audience segmentation and uses and gratifications perspective. Overall, the results indicated the most effective channels through which to reach potential Extension clientele under 50 years of age is through the internet and social media, while word of mouth and newspaper are preferred channels for those 50 and over. However, the results of the study indicate there are a variety of potential communication channels with varying degrees of preference among different audiences. Using study results as a starting point to inform communication channel strategy may help to Extension professionals ensure the correct message is provided to the correct audience via the correct channel.

Today, institutions of higher education enroll rural students, and specifically rural women, at rates lower than their urban counterparts (Flora et al., 2018). Additionally, the disciplines of teaching and home economics continue to dominate the curricular choices of rural women. As higher education scholars continue to explore these phenomena, a historical understanding of the relationship between rural women and education in the United States can provide an important context for scholarship about these educational patterns. This article explores the mixed legacies of three educational programs/policies implemented in the early 20th century and the ways in which they shaped educational practices for rural women in the United States: (a) the formalization of home economics as a post-secondary academic discipline, which set the stage for legislative developments; (b) the passage of the Smith-Lever Act, which institutionalized extension programs housed at land-grant colleges and universities; and (c) the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act, which brought vocational training, inclusive of home economics, to the lower schools. Collectively, these programs and policies provide insight into the complexity of the relationship between rural women and higher education, highlighting why some rural women participated in post-secondary education while others were not heavily present on college and university campuses but were still engaged in specific educational practices, often led by colleges and universities.

Small farms and small farmers are a growing sector of the agricultural economy nationwide. Notably, small farms are influenced by similar antagonists to the success of their business as large, concentrated operations, but they experience it differently. The purpose of this study was to describe small farms and farmers in North Dakota to assist North Dakota State University Extension in defining their needs for programming development. We found that nearly 45% of small farmer respondents are women. Small farmers prefer to access information for their operations in a variety of ways but like to engage with Extension through more direct and personal means. Recommendations include developing programming targeted at female farmers and organizing Extension information resources targeted at small farm needs, specifically.

Water quality and availability are critical issues currently addressed by agricultural education professionals. Extension professionals need to employ innovative approaches to help residents adopt practices and technologies to reduce the impact of urban landscapes on water resources. This study explored how individuals' dissatisfaction relative to their perceived importance of either clean water for large and local water bodies or plentiful water for local water bodies related to their intent to engage in landscape best management practices following a tailored message. Individuals were randomly assigned to receive a message appealing to improving water quality through good fertilization practices or a message appealing to improving water availability through good irrigation practices. Those who assigned higher importance but perceived lower satisfaction with clean water had greater likelihood of engaging in most fertilizer best practices after receiving a tailored message compared to those who assigned lower importance and perceived higher satisfaction with clean water. Those who assigned higher importance but perceived lower satisfaction with plentiful water were more likely to engage in one of the five irrigation best practices compared to those who assigned lower importance and perceived higher satisfaction with plentiful water after receiving the message. Agricultural education programs should tailor messages to dimensions clientele perceive as important but with which they are unsatisfied, especially when intent is lower.

Extension, being a local, state and federally funded program has a natural partnership with government agencies at all three levels, however these partnerships could be built upon and targeted at specific audiences for greater effect if more is known about how government influences public perception. The government has recognized the need for increased public engagement in water conservation to ensure the sustainability of water resources for future generations and taken action through incentive programs and regulations. Political affiliation is known to influence public perception of government initiatives, which may impact levels of intention and engagement in water conservation. This study explored how US residents responded to positive and negative governmental influences on water conservation practices using an online survey. The findings revealed significant differences in the water conservation activities respondents are currently engaged in, as well as future intentions, depend upon political affiliation. Additionally, intention can be predicted by political affiliation and positive government perceptions. By examining the dissonance created by respondents' engagement and intention to take water conservation action, guidance can be provided to extension educators on how to collaborate with government agencies to develop and implement programs and policies that encourage or enforce engagement in water conservation behaviors.

Extension educators have diligently educated the general public about water conservation. Incorporating audiences' personal experience into educational programming is recommended as an approach to effectively enhance audiences' adoption of water conservation practices. To ensure the impact on the audiences and environment, understanding the differences in issues audiences are concerned and audiences' behavioral pattern is needed. This study examined the regional differences in how U.S. residents' experiences with water issues related to their engagement and intention to engage in water conservation in order to facilitate the development of Extension educational programming in different regions. An online survey was administered to collect responses from U.S. residents in this descriptive and correlational study. Respondents' water issues experience, water use behaviors, water conservation practice application, and willingness to act on water conservation were measured. Regional differences in how experience were associated with water use behaviors, water conservation practices application, and willingness to act were found. Extension educators should be aware of such regional differences when developing water conservation educational programs and provide recommendations tailored to regional audiences' needs and interests. By doing so, audiences' adoption of water conservation practices is expected to increase.

Purpose: This study investigated the impact of privatization of advisory services on the quality of the services. Design/methodology/approach: The front- and back-office dimensions of advisory activities were analyzed through interviews with 43 advisers involved in the advisory services provided as part of a cocoa exporter's certification program. Findings: Our results showed that the ratio of advisors per producer in the private advisory system is too high, and the means of transport for advisors are inadequate. The training received by the advisors is strongly oriented towards mastering technical subjects related to certification requirements, while soft or process topics that would provide them with knowledge and skills required to co-produce with farmers is neglected. Regarding the front office dimension, advice to cocoa producers is largely prescriptive and fails to co-produce knowledge that is relevant to their needs. Practical implications: The study produced empirical data that allows us to go beyond the theoretical farm advice approach derived from micro-economic modeling. Theoretical implications: Our findings weaken the arguments in favor of privatization of farm advisory services. Originality/value: The study provides insights into the consequence of privatizing farm advisory services in the West Africa context by producing one of the first study on this subject in Côte d'Ivoire.

Purpose: Enhancing the relevance of rural extension services requires aligning extension education to the roles, tasks, activities and competencies of smallholder farmers. The objective of this study is to follow up on previous competence studies and to construct a validated competence framework. Design/Methodology/Approach: Competence frameworks are generally being used to articulate performance requirements for certain jobs or professions. Whereas most competence frameworks display generic competencies and long lists of tasks, this study combines generic competencies, behavioural aspects, and content specifications of the job fields. The competence framework was empirically validated through workshops, focus-group discussions, and surveys involving 76 participants from stakeholder groups. Findings: The results reveal nine roles: 1. Learner, 2. Manager, 3. Communicator, 4. Co-operator, 5. Professional, 6. Innovator, 7. Entrepreneur, 8. Planner, and 9. Producer. Furthermore, six job fields are defined, based on the content of the farmers' jobs: 1. Pre-planting, 2. During-planting, 3. After-planting, 4. During-harvesting, 5. Post-harvesting, and 6. Facilitating all farming activities. Combining the roles and the job fields results in the identification of 23 tasks and 25 competencies. Practical implications: The competence framework validated in this study can serve as a starting point for extension workers to develop courses, training programs, and interactions with smallholder farmers. Theoretical implications The study demonstrates a research approach involving the contextualization of competencies, rendering them meaningful for improving rural innovation and the productivity of smallholder farming. Originality/Value: The integrated approach used to develop the competence framework can be applied in any other context, and result in a comprehensive understanding of the respective job/profession.

Purpose: Pervasive use of poor quality seed remains an important reason for low yields throughout the developing world. We explore ways to increase the quality of the local stock of seed tubers among a sample of Ugandan potato farmers. Design/methodology/approach: Using videos, we provide agricultural extension information on (i) how to select the best seed tubers and (ii) how to properly handle and store seed tubers until the next planting season. The relative effectiveness of the information interventions is tested using an individually randomized controlled trial where we model spillovers using a randomization-based framework for estimating causal effects under interference between units. Findings: Especially the video on seed selection translated into increased awareness and adoption of recommended practices, increased probability of using improved inputs, as well as higher consumption. Practical implications: Interventions aimed at improving seed quality are important in the absence of access to high-quality seed. Video messages are becoming increasingly useful as a complementary tool in agricultural extension. Theoretical implications: Randomization-based inference can be used to take into account spillover effects in the analysis rather than the design phase of an experiment. Originality/value: This is the first study to address seed quality of potato tubers in a real-world setting using videos.

Purpose: This paper seeks to understand what influences research and extension professionals' intentions to use AIS approaches and to explore how this can inform implementation and design of more effective AIS. Methodology: We applied the Reasoned Action Approach through focus groups and structured questionnaires with research and extension professionals from government and non-government organisations in Sierra Leone, where AIS approaches are not widely used although increasingly institutionalised in policy. Findings: Research and extension professionals have surprisingly positive attitudes towards using AIS approaches and associate it with a range of positive outcomes related to food security and inclusive processes. The perceived ability to successfully implement AIS approaches is strongly influenced by funding, organisational culture and dynamics between senior and junior staff. We also found that alongside use of AIS approaches there is a continued adherence to top-down approaches. Practical Implications: This work highlights the enthusiasm and interest among extension and research professionals as a promising start for improving the innovation systems. Practical requirements include training of senior and involvement of junior staff respectively in AIS design, and addressing extension education and organisational culture. Theoretical Implications: This study highlights the importance of socio-psychological theory for understanding attitudes towards AIS approaches. We show how considering both institutional and personal constraints is vital for conceptualising how AIS are evolving. Originality: There has been very little research conducted on research and extension professionals' intentions to use AIS approaches in developing countries that links with personal and systemic preconditions for supporting more effective AIS.

Purpose: The purpose was to examine whether connectedness to water could improve the predictive power of the Theory of Planned Behavior on outdoor water conservation intentions. Methodology: We adapted the well-established Connectedness to Nature Scale to measure connectedness to water. Using quantitative survey data from 3,596 residents, we used multiple regression to examine relationships between the connectedness to water construct and Theory of Planned Behavior variables. Findings: Connectedness to water increased the predictive power of the Theory of Planned Behavior and importantly, exceeded the predictive power of any of the theory's individual variables. Practical Implications: An improved understanding of factors relate to water conservation intentions provides new insight into outdoor water use. Connectedness to water may support engagement in many environmentally responsible behaviors. This construct represents a potential impact for water conservation programs in household and agricultural contexts, and potential evaluation tool. Program planners and evaluators may use the new scale a valuable tool for developing reasonable activities and objectives as well as evaluating outcomes of water conservation education programs. Theoretical Implications: Viewed through the lens of the Theory of Planned Behavior, an understanding of people's emotional connections to water explains intentions to protect water better than attitude, perceived behavioral control, or subjective norms. Connectedness to water may also provide a valuable measure of attitudinal centrality. Originality/Value: This is the first study to examine connectedness to water in any conservation context.