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The article discusses mythologies about the ancient council of Nicaea, near Roman emperor Constantine's city of Constantinople. Topics discussed include Constantine's toleration of Christianity and alliance with Christians, misrepresentations about Nicaea in Dan Brown's book "Da Vinci Code," and the understanding about the transition of Jesus Christ from human to divine with the Council of Nicaea convening to announce the doctrine of Christ's divinity.

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One of the aspects that caracterizes the period of the so-called Dominate (Dominatus) or Absolute Monarchy is the fact that the imperial power makes use of religion to legitimize itself. From another perspective, changes in the organization of the Imperial Chancery took place that reflect the reality of an absolute monarchy of divine right supported by a complex bureaucracy and a strong army, with important impact on the tax system. An exponential price increase characterizes the crisis of the 3rd century AD from Aurelian onwards and justifies Diocletian's despotism on economic issues. Characteristic of this epoch is an Imperial Government formed by several Emperors at the same time. A system of Imperial Tetrarchy was thus established. The radical change in the imperial policy concerning Christianity took place under Emperor Constantine. After the Milan Agreement (313 AD), Constantine assumed himself more and more as the protector of the Church, collaborating with the Bishops in their fight against heresy and legislating favourably towards Christianity. The definitive division of the Empire into two took place after the death of Emperor Theodosius I, Augustus in the East between 379 and 394 AD, only Emperor in 394/395 AD, with two Emperors, one in the Eastern Roman Empire, the other in the Western Roman Empire. The so-called Barbarian Invasions, that is, the assault of several Germanic tribes and tribal groups on Roman territory in the 5th century has caused the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Yet the Eastern Half of the Empire continued to exist. In the 5th century the Western Roman State underwent a gradual disintegration. The conclusion of foedera, that is, treaties with Non-Roman Barbarian Groups which contained a right to settle on the territory of the Roman Empire, were instruments of power, to which the weakened Roman Emperors resorted in order to be able to continue to assert their claim to sovereignty over the territory of the Roman Empire. For other reasons, too, the authority of the Roman emperors came under scrutiny. The spread of the so-called patronage in both the Eastern and Western Roman Empires means, for example, that prominent personalities such as imperial officials and large landowners maintain private armies (e.g.: buccellarii) that act in their own interest and are not in the service of the common good. Especially after the reign of Majorian (457-461 AD), the disintegration of the Western Roman State could no longer be stopped. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The monastic author of the Saxon Imperial abbey of Gandersheim, Hrotsvit of Gandersheim was a notable woman playwright during the reign of Otto I, who had been crowned Roman emperor by the Pope in 962. Hrotsvit subverts notoriously misogynistic medieval literature and the negative literary depiction of women in her plays composed in the middle of the 10th century. She substitutes the masculine tradition and pagan writers’ themes of shameless indecency of lascivious women with saintly women who verbally and intellectually defeat the male oppressors. Transfiguring the earlier depictions, she is devoted to evangelizing of the world and committed to reorienting the dramatic representation of women. Furthermore, she identifies herself with an educator and moralist and discloses an assertion of intention to constructs a didactic persona. This study analyzes Hrotsvit’s plays Dulcitius and Sapientia by discussing the ways in which Hrotsvit defies the literary conventions in male-authored narratives through her female characters, who simultaneously defy and subvert the male authority through rhetorical skills, moral and intellectual ability, and Christian wisdom. The aim of this study is to show that Hrotsvit elevates the depiction of women and to serve God and spiritual ends by writing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

La riche épigraphie de Cos permet de constituer un corpus de 1192 individus disposant de la citoyenneté romaine entre le ier s. av. n.è. et 212 de n.è. Cet article propose une première analyse de ce corpus prosopographique en se concentrant sur la chronologie de la présence romaine à Cos et sur l'étude des noms romains pour évaluer la diffusion de la citoyenneté romaine en Orient. Le nombre de citoyens romains est important dès le ier s. av. n.è., avant d'exploser au ier s. de. n.è., puis de diminuer au iie s. av. n.è. Le corpus de Cos présente une majorité de gentilice non-impériaux, ce qui laisse suggérer que c'est moins l'octroi de la citoyenneté romaine par les empereurs que l'installation de familles de negotiatores qui a diffusé la ciuitas Romana à Cos. Parmi les empereurs, si Claude a eu un rôle majeur dans l'octroi de la ciuitas Romana, il faut réévaluer à la hausse le rôle de César, Auguste et peut-être Tibère. Enfin, la citoyenneté romaine n'est pas restée au sein de l'élite, le corpus des inscriptions funéraires permettant de connaître un grand nombre de citoyens romains moins fortunés et éloignés des charges politiques. Summary: The rich epigraphy of Kos makes it possible to compile a corpus of 1192 roman citizens between the 1st century BC and AD 212. This article offers an initial analysis of this prosopographical corpus, focusing on the chronology of the Roman presence at Kos and on the spread of Roman citizenship in the Greek East. The number of Roman citizens was significant from the first century BC, before exploding in the first century AD and then declining in the second century BC. The Koan corpus contains a majority of non-imperial gentilices, which suggests that it was less the granting of Roman citizenship by the emperors than the settlement of families of negotiatores that spread the ciuitas Romana to CKs. Among the emperors, Claudius played a major role in the granting of ciuitas Romana, but the role of Caesar, Augustus and perhaps Tiberius needs to be reassessed. Finally, Roman citizenship was not confined to the elite: the corpus of funerary inscriptions reveals a large number of Roman citizens who were less fortunate and not holders of political offices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Roman ruling ideology stressed imperial control of knowledge, as well as of material and people. A range of evidence from across the empire suggests that these knowledge claims were commonly accepted, and often mobilised, by ruled communities. In his First Apology, written in Rome in the 150s and addressed to the Roman emperor, Justin Martyr leverages these ideals for his own knowledge claims concerning the life of Jesus and his fulfilment of Hebrew Bible prophecies. It has already been recognised that Justin engages with the machinery of empire through packaging his Apology as a petition presented to the emperor. On the other hand, his citation of Roman documents at several points in the text has been neglected. A close examination reveals the importance of these citations to Justin's project, in which he utilises the supposed fidelity of Roman documents, and the idea of the emperor as a guarantor of collected knowledge, to authenticate his Christian claims. Finally, proceeding from suggestions about an internal audience for Christian apologetics, it is argued that these references should be seen as alleviating the concerns of an internal Christian readership, and not as overtures to non-Christian Graeco-Romans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The centrality of the territorial principalities and imperial diet is a defining feature of the historiography of the late medieval Holy Roman Empire. This tendency risks restricting discussions of the Reich's political life to the arena of high politics and obscuring important links and relationships between the imperial monarchy and its non-princely subjects. This article sets out to examine interactions between the late medieval imperial government and its subjects in the localities. The analysis focuses on the court and government of Emperor Friedrich III of Habsburg (r. 1440–1493), whose 'peripheral kingship' has been interpreted by historians as the moment of the crown's definitive alienation from the Empire's core lands. The article presents two case studies of protracted legal disputes in which communities of different size, importance and location came into the orbit of the emperor's court seeking to protect their rights and interests. These case studies provide illustrative examples of how routine matters and local conflicts could be inextricably bound up in the structures of the emperor's government. This evidence suggests that a complete account of the political and governmental history of the late medieval Holy Roman Empire needs to incorporate both new insights about the effectiveness of the imperial monarchy and the complex, multi-layered and interdependent nature of local politics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The work, Dialogue between the Emperor Hadrian and Epictetus the Philosopher, is a fictional dialogue consisting of seventy-three questions and answers, probably written in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. It features the Roman emperor Hadrian as the questioning pupil and the Stoic philosopher Epictetus as the responding teacher. Most of the questions can be divided into two main categories. The smaller part is written in the form of riddles. The others are definitions. The questions deal with a variety of topics: things to do with death (e.g. gravedigger, funeral pyre), definitions of various metals (gold, silver, iron), useful things (e.g. letter, picture, sword), relationships and emotional terms (e.g. friendship, hope, love), celestial objects (sun, moon, sky, stars, earth), and realities related to seafaring (sea, ship, sailor), nightlife (sleep, night, pillow) or religion (god, sacrifice). This work was particularly influential in the development of medieval dialogue. The most famous adaptation is the Enfant Sage, which originated in the 13th century somewhere in the region of Provence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper studies a copper coin type issued during the reign of the Kuṣāṇ king Kujūla Kadphises (ca. 40/50–90 AD) called "Roman Emperor Type". These coins, dated towards the end of the first century AD, present on the obverse the image of a ruler recalling the imperial iconography of the Julio-Claudian period, and on the reverse Kujūla himself seated. The coin is a real innovation in the history of ancient Indian numismatics and can be the starting point to understand the political choices of Kujūla in a context still embryonic for the Kuṣāṇs. This paper, through the literary, epigraphic, and archaeological sources at our disposal, aims to demonstrate that the issuing was influenced not only by the halo of authority that the Romans had in India, but mainly by the economic and religious context of the city, which the sovereign used as a place of experimentation for this particular hybrid type of coin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Zbornik Radova Pravnog Fakulteta u Nisu is the property of Law Faculty in Nis and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

School–museum partnerships have gained considerable attention in the academic literature in recent decades. However, their role in enhancing science education is still an under-researched topic. This work reports on the outcomes of the recovery, study, cataloging, and valorization of the 18th century geo-mineralogical collection belonging to the Collegio Nazareno, now housed at the Istituto San Giuseppe Calasanzio in Rome. The project, which was participated in by the students enrolled in the fourth- and fifth-grade high school classes, revealed rare specimens such as the mineralogical collection donated by the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II (1741–1740) in 1785. Furthermore, the laboratory activities organized from the stored samples highlighted educational approaches that helped students to cope with the complexities of authentic scientific work and cultural related issues. This work thus offers significant insights into the importance of natural history school museums as useful (and oft-forgotten) learning tools in science education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study is dedicated to the cult of St. Denis, the first Bishop of Paris and the French “national” patron saint in medieval Bohemia and Moravia. The cult of St. Denis had played a rather important role already in the Duchy of Bohemia, having probably propagated there via Bavaria during the initial Christianization efforts. This is documented by the pilgrimage of St. Adalbert of Prague to SaintDenis monastery and the general presence of St. Denis in Bohemian liturgy from, at the latest, the 12th century. Although isolated monuments and altar dedications of Saint Denis had existed since the 13th century, it was not until the 14th century that the cult of Saint Denis grew stronger, driven by French influences. Its ebb and flow seem to have faithfully reflected the intensity of friendly contacts between the Kingdoms of Bohemia and France. Charles IV, the famous King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, privately venerated St. Denis, probably due to having spent his childhood in Paris. This is evidenced not only by his acquisition of two St. Denis relics and commissioning of the image of St. Denis for the Chapel of the Holy Cross at Karlštejn but also by his personal visit to the SaintDenis monastery in January 1378, when he expressed his devotion at the saint’s tomb and kissed the saint’s head. Although the cult of St. Denis declined in the period leading up to and, especially, following the Hussite Wars, it remained present in late medieval Czech society thanks to the saint’s inclusion in the group of Fourteen Holy Helpers and the celebration of his feast day in the liturgy of all Catholic churches. Although St. Denis never became a popular saint in the Czech lands during the Middle Ages, he was widely known. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Virtual try-on (VTO) technology offers an opportunity for fashion and beauty brands to provide enriched self-explorative experiences. The increased popularity of VTOs makes it urgent to understand the drivers and consequences of the exploration of styles in VTO contexts (herein called self-explorative engagement). Notably, little is known about the antecedent and outcomes of the personalized self-explorative experience central to VTOs. This paper aims to fill this knowledge gap. Design/methodology/approach: An online quasi-experiment (N = 500) was conducted in the context of fashion and beauty VTOs. Participants were asked to virtually try on sunglasses or lipsticks and subsequently answer a questionnaire measuring the key constructs: self-presence (i.e. physical similarity and identification), self-explorative engagement (i.e. exploration of styles in VTO context), brand cognitive processing and brand attitude. The authors analyze the data with structural equation modeling via maximum likelihood estimation in LISREL. Findings: The experience of self-presence during consumers' use of VTOs in augmented reality environments has a positive effect on self-explorative engagement. Furthermore, a mediation analysis reveals that self-explorative engagement improves brand attitude via brand cognitive processing. The results are confirmed for two popular fashion and beauty brands. Originality/value: Grounded in extended self theory, to the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first study to show that a realistic VTO experience encourages self-extension via a process starting from the exploration of styles and results in increased brand cognitive processing and more positive brand attitudes. The exploration of styles is enabled by self-presence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The document is the cover and back matter of the Classical Quarterly journal, volume 73, issue 2, published in December 2023. The journal is published by Cambridge University Press for the Classical Association. It contains a wide range of research papers and short notes on topics related to ancient Greece and Rome, including language, literature, history, and philosophy. The Classical Association is a global organization that promotes the study of ancient Greece and Rome and supports Classics in schools and universities. The journal is highly regarded for its high-quality scholarship and is a valuable resource for anyone interested in classical studies. [Extracted from the article]

Julia Hillner's life of Helena, mother of Constantine, is the twentieth volume published in OUP's 'Women in Antiquity' series, launched in 2010 with Duane Roller's biography of Cleopatra. An earlier and overlapping series on the same theme — Routledge's 'Women of the Ancient World' — began in 2006 and adds a further half-dozen titles to the portfolio, from Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great by Elizbeth Carney to The Women of Pliny's Letters by Jo-Ann Shelton. The pace of publication picked up in 2018 and two lives from the later Roman empire — of Melania the Younger by Elizabeth Clark and Sosipatra of Pergamum by Heidi Marx — appeared alongside Celia Schultz's account of Fulvia in 2021, for example. Late republican and late antique women dominate the catalogue overall, with some empresses and exotic leaders in between, and alongside a smaller set of Hellenistic royalty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the emperor, quoting Homer was both a danger and an opportunity. Suetonius' Lives shows that anecdotes of quotation circulated widely to characterise the emperor for good or for ill. Subsequently, these moments could themselves become the subject of allusion. If you quote a line of Homer that was famously quoted by the emperor, are you quoting the poet or Caesar? This phenomenon, whereby a poetic cliché could be reborn as charged reference to a prior use of that tag by a well-known figure, might be termed metaquotation. This ambiguity of reference was exploited throughout Seneca's Apocolocyntosis , and in turn by readers of that text in antiquity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a new approach to an old problem, the provincial reception of the image of Roman emperors. Applying 3D computer modelling, we captured the portrait features of Hadrian as represented on coinage minted for the British province, produced a 3D model from a coin and compared it with the bronze head of Hadrian found in London. The aim was to test the possibility, previously posited by other scholars, that the London portrait might have been produced by an artisan who used coin portraits of the emperor as his main – if not only – model. More generally, the paper examines the dependencies of coinage and sculpture on shared models and applies new technology to Roman portrait studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The figure of the Roman emperor – ubiquitous yet ever-elusive – remains the flame to which Roman historians are ever drawn. And Fergus Millar's The Emperor in the Roman World remains the yardstick against which all subsequent efforts are judged, and with which they are all inevitably in dialogue. That is true too of Caesar Rules , the major new offering from Olivier Hekster, a one-time doctoral student of Millar's, and now one of the leading contenders for his crown. Hekster's core interest is what the emperor was ; in particular, how this institution could survive and adapt to changing circumstances despite the fact that formally it did not exist, certainly was not defined, and practically existed in a society antithetical on principle to both monarchy and change. Hekster finds the key for this long-worried lock in 'the presentation and perception of power' (10), and in particular the expectations – from all sides, and at all times – that both consolidated and constrained emperors' authority. To demonstrate this he conceives a largely unprecedented ambition in this context: to consider source material in all media from the late Republic to the reign of Justinian. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Only a decade ago Roger Kuin's The Correspondence of Sir Philip Sidney (2012) offered scholars for the first time a complete edition of Sidney's correspondence. Kuin modestly allowed room for new discoveries, in the hope that additional letters might be identified. This article introduces a previously unpublished autograph letter by Sidney, written in French, addressed on 21 April 1576 to Carolus Clusius or Charles de l'Écluse, an associate of Hubert Languet and a noted botanist then active in Vienna at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II. After briefly discussing the provenance of the manuscript I turn to its contents, situating the letter within the wider corpus of Sidney's extant correspondence, with reference to letters to and from Clusius and Languet in Kuin's edition, and analysing it within this context. The newly discovered letter, transcribed and translated in an appendix, is shown to offer important new evidence for Sidney's relationships with Clusius and Languet as well as his place in European intellectual culture more generally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Die Himmelfahrt ist ein Politikum – zumindest in der griechisch-römischen Umwelt der Apostelgeschichte, besonders, wenn man sie im Kontext der römischen Kaiserapotheose betrachtet. Der Beitrag richtet den Fokus auf die Funktion, die der Himmelfahrt im religionsgeschichtlichen Vergleich mit der Apotheose des Augustus – unter Berücksichtigung historiographischer, epigraphischer und numismatischer Zeugnisse – zukommt. Er verfolgt die These, dass Lukas eine medial verbreitete Apotheosevorstellung nutzt, um seinen griechisch-römischen Adressaten die universalisierte und fortdauernde Präsenz Jesu zu vermitteln. Ohne in eine direkte politische Opposition gegenüber der römischen Herrschaftsrepräsentation zu treten, entwirft er so ein theologisches Gegenbild. Indem Lukas nicht nur griechisch-römische, sondern auch jüdische Traditionen aufnimmt, bietet er unterschiedlichen Adressaten Verstehensmöglichkeiten und vermittelt zugleich die spezifische Neuheit und Eigenart der Präsenz Christi. The ascension is a political issue – at least in the Greco-Roman setting of Acts, especially when viewed in the context of the apotheosis of the Roman Emperors. Focusing on the function of the ascension in comparison with the apotheosis of Augustus – considering the historiographic, epigraphic, and numismatic evidence –, this article argues that Luke used the medially spread concept of apotheosis to communicate to his Greco-Roman addressees the notion of Jesus's continuing, universalized presence. Without intending to oppose Roman imperial ideology directly, he thus offered a theological counter-image. By taking up not only Greco-Roman, but also Jewish traditions, Luke made his account comprehensible for different addressees, while also transmitting the specific novelty and quality of Christ's presence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article seeks to elucidate the thesis and literary programme of the Chronicle of Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite, which was written in Syriac in Edessa by an anonymous author sometime in the first two decades of the sixth century during the reign of the Roman emperor Anastasius. To do so, it examines how the anonymous author situates events in the Chronicle against historical and theological precedent from the book of Isaiah, through both implicit allusions and explicit references. It suggests that the creation of this inter-text between the Chronicle and the book of Isaiah was intended to function as both a model of and model for the harmonization of local history with the much larger trajectories of salvation history and the history of the late Roman empire. It argues, therefore, that the Chronicle represents one of the many ways in which late antique Syriac writers negotiated not only their place in the late Roman empire but also their place in contemporary Roman literary discourses. As a result, its ultimate contention is that the Chronicle is an example of the trend of "theological Roman patriotism" found in other historiographical texts written in Greek and Latin from the eastern empire in the sixth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The variations on broadly fixed formulas used to represent such characters as the one portraying the Roman emperor, Julius Caesar, are all the more conspicuous for their, sometimes, almost imperceptible nuances. This article will illustrate some meaningful examples of filmic Caesars, focusing on the linguistic representation of this character, often handled as a stock character. The larger definition of stock characters, which includes but is not limited to stereotypes, encompasses a set of both visual and linguistic formulaic features which depend on identity constructions or social positions, to put it in Quantz's terms (2015). The character Julius Caesar is often made to follow what film historians have called a general 'linguistic paradigm', by which British actors with posh accents, in post-war Hollywood epics of the 1950s, are frequently cast as wicked Roman tyrants or simply as members of the establishment opposed by the 'hero' of the tale. Departures from a schema can be however just as revealing in order to pinpoint recurrent themes, and they will be explored by focusing on the comic rendition of Caesar as interpreted by Kenneth Williams in the 1964 British comedy Carry on Cleo, and on the analysis of its outrageously racist and sexist Italian translation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Like the First Emperor, Augustus created both the title and form of the emperor, and like the former he was both celebrated for his achievements and condemned for his cruelty and deceitfulness in climbing to power. Accounts mock the First Emperor's paranoia in hiding away behind covered passageways, but the emperor's invisibility was an ideal from the early Han. These additional approaches to examining Qin and the First Emperor are not offered as criticisms of Barbieri-Low, who has provided more than anyone could demand, but instead as further demonstrations of the validity of his argument that the First Emperor is indeed "good to think.". [Extracted from the article]

For the first time in scientific historiography, an attempt is made to shed light on one of little studied issues in the history of the European-Safavid relations - to study in detail the diplomatic mission of the Englishman Robert Brancetour, who was delegated in 1529 as an envoy of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to the Safavid court and was one of the first significant attempts to involve the Safavid Empire in a military-political alliance with western European states. The object of study in this article is "no small service" that Brancetour did to the whole Christendom, i.e. his activity aimed at involving the Safavids in an anti-Ottoman coalition and mainly at encouraging the Shah to take active military actions against the Ottoman Empire, which was one of the main enemies of many European states and posed a real threat to their existence. Brancetour's mission to the Safavid Empire, initiated by such a powerful European empire as the Holy Roman Empire, proves how strategically significant for the ruling circles of Europe states was the participation of the Safavid Empire in an anti-Ottoman campaign, and also testifies to its important role in the political history of not only the Muslim East, but also the Christian Europe. In addition, along with the coverage of the role of the Safavid Empire in the military and diplomatic history of early modern Europe, in particular in the political triangle "European states - Ottoman Empire - Safavid Empire", the present study is of great scientific importance also because it examines the attitude of the English authorities, of which Robert Brancetour was a subject, to anti-Ottomanism policy of European states, especially of the Habsburgs. Based on a detailed analysis of contemporary sources, diplomatic correspondence particularly, for the first time in scientific historiography it was supposed that one of the main reasons of English crown's desire to arrest Brancetour was the fear of the British authorities that the Habsburg-Safavid alliance, namely their joint struggle against the Ottoman aggression, which was the main goal of Brancetour's diplomatic missions to the Safavid court, could become a serious obstacle to the implementation of their policy of strengthening royal power in England, which found itself in difficult political conditions on the continent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The node centered by the volume deals with the political-cultural ties between the late medieval german emperors and the plural world of the Italian humanists. Particularly, conveying a double and corresponding line of exchanges between North and South of the Alps, the point was re-focused over emperor's presence and their retinues in the peninsula as the fulcrum of this long-term exchange. Thus, new perspectives open up regarding spaces and men involved in this political experience. Regional spaces more in contact than others with the imperial presence and the collection of sources, on the basis of macro-areas in the wake of Peter Moraw's scheme, are very useful tools to adapt our knowledge of the multiple links between emperors and Reichsitalien, not only in the 14th century and in the previous two centuries (12th-13th) but also for the crucial subsequent period (15th-16th) - considering the entire autumn of the Medieval Empire and, at the same time, the Renaissance - still relatively little focused on by the new research fields. In order to include these centuries as well, Moraw's thesis should be proficiently reconsidered, however, in light of the political-cultural ties with the emperor. Thus, it would broaden the field of research from mere jurisdiction - even this principle remains unaltered still for centuries - to political culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Art-Sanat Journal / Art-Sanat is the property of Art-Sanat and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Albrecht von Wallenstein was one of the most colourful and controversial figures of the Thirty Years War, and his dismissal by the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II and eventual assassination was one of the most talked about events of the conflict. This article examines how the downfall of the imperial generalissimo and massacre of his subordinate officers at Eger, in Bohemia, were viewed and reported across Europe at various pro- and anti-Habsburg courts. In addition to assessing how Wallenstein's demise was discussed in diplomatic circles, the article addresses how the events at Eger were portrayed in newsprint published in the German states as well as further afield in Sweden, England and the Italian states. An examination of political and private correspondence, as well as a comparison of news publications from across the continent, provides valuable insight into how information and intelligence were collected and disseminated throughout early modern Europe. By examining the depiction of Wallenstein's downfall in the arts, such as poetry and stage plays in various European cities in the immediate aftermath of the assassination and in the mid- and later 1630s, it is also possible to determine what information had been received in different locations at different times. The final section of the article addresses how Wallenstein's reputation had changed by the end of the seventeenth century, with the result that he was almost universally regarded as a notorious rebel and would-be regicide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present communication describes TOKUGAWA Ieyasu (1542-1616), the first Shogunate Generalissimo of Edo Period (1603-1867), with a special emphasis placed on his favorite food, tempura and mochi rice-cake, to begin with. Tempura, or seafood dipped in batter to be deeply fried very quickly, was introduced in those days to Japan from the West. A rumor says that his too much eating the sea-bream tempura caused his death. The truth is that he had suffered from stomach cancer. He is more or less associated with an intriguing story or a kind of legend. His army was completely defeated by his opponent, Takeda Army from a local country called Kai (the main parts of which today belongs to Yamanashi Prefecture in the west of Tokyo), fleeing from the Mikatagahara battle-field in Hamamatsu City, Shizuoka Prefecture. He was, however, so hungry that he took mochi rice-cake on the way back despite the urgent situation, leaving there without paying for the rice cake. Indignant at his behavior, the old woman selling the cake ran after him with success, getting the money. Eventually he entered his Hamamatsu Castle at the sacrifice of his man who pretended as if he had been his Lord, TOKUGAWA Ieyasu. The battle continued till into the night. According to a legend, a defense valley close to the castle was covered with a large sheet of cloth so as to kill the enemy soldiers with the anticipation of their ignorance, misunderstanding and belief in a real bridge. The plan of the massacre was carried out with success. A nearby stone monument (photo#6) shows a famous OHSHIMA Ryota’s haiku poem, “Upon the rock-edge, fighting helmets fell, as camelia flowers. (translated by J. MAKI)” About 30 years later, he was appointed by the Kyoto Emperor as the first Generalissimo of Edo Period (1603-1867). His defeated battle in Mikatagahara, Hamamatsu City was the only one during all his life. He became still more careful in everything throughout the rest of his life. He eventually founded the base of the peaceful Edo Period [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Der Tod des Ptolemaios von Mauretanien im frühen 1. Jahrhundert n. Chr. erscheint auch heute noch rätselhaft. In dieser Untersuchung soll daher neues Licht auf ein vieldiskutiertes Thema geworfen werden. Dabei wird insbesondere eine Passage in Suetons Schrift über den römischen Kaiser Caligula in den Blick genommen, der für den Tod des Ptolomaios verantwortlich gewesen sein soll. Dort wird berichtet, dass Caligula den mauretanischen König habe ermorden lassen, da dieser in einer purpurnen abolla in Rom erschienen sein und somit den Kaiser öffentlich brüskiert haben soll. In der Analyse der schriftlichen Quellen wird deutlich, dass es sich bei der abolla um eine typische Tracht hellenistisch geprägter Herrscher handelte, die von der römischen Gesellschaft als fremd konnotiert wurde. Die prestigeträchtige Farbe des Purpurs stellte eine zusätzliche Komponente einer traditionellen monarchischen Selbstdarstellung dar, die von Ptolemaios als König von Mauretanien auch so zu erwarten gewesen sein muss. Doch zeigt es sich, dass das Auftreten des Ptolemaios von Caligula vor dem Hintergrund der Spannungen der Gaetulicus-Lepidus-Verschwörung und der selbst gewählten Herrschaftskonzeption des princeps – einer expressiven Repräsentation des eigenen Ranges – missverstanden wurde. Dies führte schließlich zur drastischen Reaktion des Kaisers. Summary: The death of Ptolemy of Mauretania in the early 1st century AD remains a mystery to this day. Therefore, this study aims to shed new light on a much-discussed topic. Intending to do so, a passage from Sueton's book on the Roman emperor Caligula will be taken into account, who is believed to be responsible for Ptolemy's death. In this book, it is reported that Caligula himself ordered his assassination, because of Ptolemy's appearance in Rome, allegedly wearing a purple abolla, which is said to have publicly affronted the emperor. The analysis of written sources illustrates that the abolla is a typical costume of Hellenistic-shaped rulers, which was connoted as alien by Roman society. The prestigious colour of purple displays another component of traditional monarchic self-staging, which Ptolemy, being the king of Mauretania, made use of, which must have been expected anyways. However, it shows that Ptolemy's appearance was misunderstood by Caligula, which may have occurred in the light of the conspiracy led by Gaetulicus and Lepidus and because of the princeps's chosen conception of rulership, manifesting as an expressive representation of his own rank. Eventually, this led to the emperor's drastic reaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]