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The declining number of conceptual articles, particularly in psychology and marketing (P&M), represents a key concern for the continued advancement of the body of knowledge. Proposition‐based works, a key conceptual article subtype, offer theoretical propositions that introduce new concepts and theorize regarding their specific theoretical associations. However, relatively few guidelines for the preparation of these articles exist, leaving scholars in the dark regarding their development. Addressing this gap, we propose a framework summarizing the development of proposition‐based research, offering a step‐by‐step guide to craft these contributions. The framework identifies the (1) key role of topic (e.g., a focal P&M concept) problematization and motivation, which may be an existing but under‐explored or a new‐to‐P&M topic, and (2) application of a broader (e.g., meso‐ or macro‐foundational) theory to frame the topic, which should exhibit a level of fit with one another. The framework also suggests that the chosen topic and theory co‐infuse the development of the model and propositions, for which we provide relevant guidelines. We link this theoretical co‐infusion process to prior intra‐proposition recommendations (i.e., propositional clarity, consistency, conciseness, and contribution), which are supplemented with the proposed inter‐proposition guidelines of propositional conceptual distinctiveness, comprehensiveness, and coherence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Thanks to the concept of G.P. Melnikov, the technology of text’s meaning understanding is clarified. In simple cases of understanding in the linguistic consciousness of a person, a group of mental actors plays out a small drama of a sentence / utterance, the script of which is set by a predicate (Seshe - Tenier). Here, understanding is equal to seeing the situation (mise en scene) and is the initial stage. At the second stage, what is seen is equated with a life metaphor or gestalt (Lakoff and Johnson). I.A. Melchuk and his Linguistic-combinatorial dictionary (created jointly with A. Zholkovsky) made up the third part of the theory of understanding, the fourth part of which should be considered the concept of speech actions by Austin and Searle. All these linguistic concepts agree well in the spirit of G.P. Melnikov’s systemology and form a theory of understanding as a whole. The problem of the multiple layers of the text is perfectly visible in the literary texts of Ch. Aimatov, whose 95th Anniversary coincided with a similar anniversary of G.P. Melnikov.

This paper seeks to answer three questions: (1) What is the difference between grammatical and lexical indications of information source? (2) What qualifies an element for grammaticalization as an evidential? (3) How can we identify grammatical evidentials and instances of evidential grammaticalization? The answers proposed are as follows: (1) The difference between grammatical and lexical indications of information source is a difference between indications conventionalized as discourse secondary and indications conventionalized as potentially discourse primary. (2) A candidate for grammaticalization as an evidential must (i) have propositional scope, (ii) belong in the conceptual domain of information source, (iii) be frequent enough to pass the threshold for conventionalization, and (iv) be discourse secondary, but not by convention. (3) Grammatical evidentials and instances of evidential grammaticalization can be identified based on focusablity, addressability and modifiability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the structure of the image of “vision” in the Russian linguistic worldview. The structural reconstruction was performed through the study of the key meanings of “vision” in the Russian language. The proposition, a logical outline of the components involved in visual perception, was selected as a way by which the knowledge about “vision” is gathered. The following components were found to be a regular source of figurative meanings: the subject of visual perception, the process of visual perception, the subject’s features indicating the quality of visual perception, and the means of visual perception. The dominant meanings of different propositional elements constituting the structural core of the image of “vision” were revealed: “the ability to see,” “the quality of vision,” “light,” “mediation,” and “accommodation.” The main denotative spheres covered by the knowledge about “vision” were distinguished: the human sphere, as well as the spheres of artifacts (technical means of image capture, artificial light sources) and nature (primarily natural light sources). It was shown that the metaphors referring to the human sphere are based on the idea of a close connection between visual perception and mental activity. The anthropomorphic metaphors arising from the artifacts used to produce images are created following the same logical pattern. The metaphorical understanding of light sources, both artificial and natural, is determined by the association between “vision” and light in the minds of native Russian speakers.

The article examines the features of the component structure and internal relationships in the English-language framework TRADE. According to M. Minsky, we understand the frame as a structure that represents stereotyped knowledge and expectations that allow the system to ensure internal consistency. In linguistics, this manifests itself in the fact that the meaning of a single word requires access to all the basic knowledge associated with that word. For example, understanding the word sell requires knowledge of the commercial transfer situation, which includes the seller, buyer, goods, money, and their relationships. In this sense, it is the perspective that is important: from the buyer's point of view, the trading process is a purchase, while from the seller's point of view, it is a sale. The article analyzes the possibilities of applying different perspectives to reveal the internal structure of the TRADE frame and the relational arcs between its components. The formation of the frame occurs due to the combination of propositions that determine the relationship between its components. A proposition as a basic structure of knowledge representation has a logical subject (the target concept) and a logical predicate (a feature attributed to the subject). The construction of propositions within the frame is carried out through the functioning of the basic propositional frames, which enable the coherence of its cognitive content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study reviewed Herman Cappelen and Ernest Lepore's theory of Semantic Minimalism. This theory was proposed as a universal semantic theory in linguistics in 2005. In this article, the Semantic Minimalism theory was examined in Persian language and on the data of this language. By examining the criticisms raised by some exfats, it can be seen that considering the nature of the theory that follows logical and mathematical languages, it is inefficient and unacceptable in the analysis of meaning in languages that are natural. In this article, the opinions of different exfats regarding the Semantic Minimalism theory of Cappelen and Lepore were reviewed. Moreover, this study evaluated the strenths and weaknesses of the viewpoints of exfats in this field of study. There are important objections to this theory. Some of the objections context displacement, incompleteness, and unchangeability of truth conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The Kazakh anthroponymicon during its centuries-old history did not experience serious pressure from religious and state institutions and therefore is characterized by a high degree of non-formalization. It has preserved the ancient traditions of naming, which are based on cultural and gender stereotypes: firstly, the preference for the birth of a male baby; and secondly, the birth of a boy child that is considered as a gift of higher sacred powers. This article explores a group of male anthroponyms formed as a result of the addition of substantive forms and the verbs tuu 'to be born', kelu 'to come', and beru 'to give'. They retain syntactic relations that go back to the original sentence: propositional semantics and actant models. Complex two-part anthroponyms belong to polypropositive structures; the primary proposition for all of them is the proposition 'A child was born'. Further, depending on the semantics and valency of the verbal component, there are situations of a reward, a birth time with different actants. In the surface structure of the anthroponym, depending on the relevance for those who give the name, in addition to the predicate, actants of various types are verbalized, such as agent, patient, and donor. In addition to the dictum content, the considered names include modal meanings: an evaluative mode, intention, which are expressed implicitly. Names-wishes and names-thanksgiving are distinguished depending on the intention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This article examines the phenomenon of blending cognitive assets of communicants in the process of communicative relevance generation. Relevance is shown as the situative significance of propositions and presuppositions for each of the communication participants. The main purpose of the study is delimitation of assonant, dissonant and consonant relations as a space of collective significance on the basis of cognitive blend of actual, motivation and interpretation significances. As a result of the analysis of simulated dialogs, taking into account the integral model of the individual-collective transition, the key macro-positions and mechanisms of particular positions implication ways variation are determined. Authors defines the main principles of shared communicative relevance as a synergistic interaction of private propositions and presuppositions of all interaction participants. The basis for complex integral analysis of simulated dialogues made by discoursive and modus approach as well by some solutions of hermeneutical-noematic analysis procedure. The topic macroposition is claimed to be the key factor uniting particular relevances within the process of receiver and sender focusing. Subjective significances, entering into a relations of dissonance and assonance ultimately on the basis of communicant’s preoccupation of interaction, modify different areas, adapt diverge components to general cultural cognitive assets and contribute the preservation of the basic proposition of a main common frame. Situative modeling within the framework of constitutive analysis of private significance is applied as general scheme through the prism of the differing premises of the communicants, while the blending of cognitive assets is built according to the formula of subject-subject-object hypostatization. Within the framework of taking into account the initial input components cognitive blending is carried out on the basis of semiotic situative correlation using additive and adaptive speech and cognitive strategies.

This paper investigates how engineering discourse evaluates technical developments based on their utility, uselessness, or harm. It examines German-language specialized texts that report on contemporary scientific innovations, using a functional-pragmatic analysis method to explore the propositional structure of statements that convey utilitarian information. The article, published in a scientific journal, is considered in this study as a situationally conditioned speech act that aims to inform readers through the communicative strategy of explanation. The analysis focuses on identifying the implicit configurations that the author creates in the linguistic expression of propositions such as “fact,” “opinion,” and “assessment.” The combination of these propositions in one context allows describing the ways of presenting scientific data from a utilitarian point of view. Utilitarian evaluation mainly depends on the author’s explanation of cause-and-effect relationships, which form the basis for assessments. Moreover, the author often refers to authoritative opinions or experimental results to support the evaluation. The text also includes unargued assessments, which invite the reader to agree or disagree. The analysis in this paper shows that utilitarian assessments in engineering discourse are driven by the goal of professional communication. They follow the principles of rationality, provability, and objectivity, which are reflected in the author’s deliberate detachment from the subject of description. These pragmatic features are related to the values of professional communication, which involve not only providing reliable data but also promoting progressive ideas in society. The rhetorical effect of persuasion achieved by reasoned objectification of utilitarian assessments in the text is a distinctive characteristic of scientific discourse. It is also an efficient way of fulfilling the objectives of specialized communication. This study contributes to a better understanding of the pragmatic aspects of utilitarian evaluation in engineering discourse, highlighting its empirical basis and its importance for the wider field of professional communication.

Copyright of Bulletin of Ablai Khan KazUIRandWL: Series 'Philological sciences' is the property of Kazakh Ablai Khan University of International Relations & World Languages and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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Copyright of Selçuk University Journal of Faculty of Letters is the property of Selcuk Universitesi Edebiyat Fakultesi Dergisi and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Beytulhikme: An International Journal of Philosophy is the property of Beytulhikme: An International Journal of Philosophy and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Настоящая статья посвящена выявлению и классификации средств, реализующих пропозициональное содержание «сомнение» в русском разговорном дискурсе. Данная работа выполнена в рамках когнитивной лингвистики, а ее актуальность обусловлена тем, что изучение пропозиций и пропозициональных установок позволяет понять, как существует человек в языке, какими пропозициональными моделями он оперирует в речемыслительной деятельности, и как соотносятся системы знания с такими моделями. Реализация пропозиционального содержания «сомнение» рассматривается на материале Корпуса звучащей речи русского языка; применяется метод категоризации для определения основных концептуальных признаков сомнения и его репрезентации в русской языковой картине мира. Выстраивается номинативное поле для выявления значений, которые может содержать данное понятие. Приводится классификация средств, реализующих пропозициональное содержание сомнения в рассматриваемом дискурсе, а также статистика, описывающая наиболее частотные из средств.

The Kazakh anthroponymicon during its centuries-old history did not experience serious pressure from religious and state institutions and therefore is characterized by a high degree of non-formalization. It has preserved the ancient traditions of naming, which are based on cultural and gender stereotypes: firstly, the preference for the birth of a male baby; and secondly, the birth of a boy child that is considered as a gift of higher sacred powers. This article explores a group of male anthroponyms formed as a result of the addition of substantive forms and the verbs tuu ‘to be born’, kelu ‘to come’, and beru ‘to give’. They retain syntactic relations that go back to the original sentence: propositional semantics and actant models. Complex two-part anthroponyms belong to polypropositive structures; the primary proposition for all of them is the proposition ‘A child was born’. Further, depending on the semantics and valency of the verbal component, there are situations of a reward, a birth time with different actants. In the surface structure of the anthroponym, depending on the relevance for those who give the name, in addition to the predicate, actants of various types are verbalized, such as agent, patient, and donor. In addition to the dictum content, the considered names include modal meanings: an evaluative mode, intention, which are expressed implicitly. Names-wishes and names-thanksgiving are distinguished depending on the intention.

Copyright of Biology Teaching is the property of East China Normal University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Objective To explore the influence of reasonable examination contents and checkpoints on the training outcomes of continuing medical education. Methods From September 2020 to February 2021, we carried out online and offline continuing medical education training for clinicians in maternal and child health centers in 16 districts of Beijing. The effect was assessed after the training. The assessment contents were assigned following the characteristics of continuing medical education, and examination checkpoints were set up according to the teaching content and arrangement to evaluate the learning effect. Results A total of three sections of online training programs were completed with 10 courses in each section and one examination was conducted at the end of each section. A total of 48 examinations were completed in 16 district maternal and child health care hospitals. The offline training was undertaken by the maternal and child health care hospitals in 16 districts of Beijing. Four to six training courses were completed in each hospital and one offline training examination was completed at the end of the course. The average score of test after three times of online training in 16 district maternal and child health care hospitals was 88.56±4.76, 93.39±3.22 and 90.71±5.18, respectively. Offline test average score was 88.65±4.35. Most students chose ‘excellent’ and ‘good’ for offline training satisfaction. Conclusions Reasonable establishment of examination node and examination content in medical continuing education may have positive influence on training outcomes.

Despite Wittgenstein's philosophical activities in Britain and his strong inclination towards analytic philosophy, there are also non-analytic elements in his thought which are rooted in classical German thought, especially in Kant's critical philosophy. We can, therefore, detect Kantian elements in Wittgenstein's thought. Concerning the main aim of this research, i.e., to show the Kantian veins of Wittgenstein’s thought, the following elements can be enumerated: critique of Metaphysics, delimitation of expression of thought, transcendentality of logic and ethics, problem of Metaphysics and science, refutation of private language. Given the evolution of Wittgenstein's though, this paper aims to show that, first, these similarities and parallels can be drawn not only from the Tractatus but also from the Philosophical Investigations. Second, there are fundamental differences between Wittgenstein's commentators, for instance, P.M.S Hacker argues against the transcendental reading of both the Tractatus and the Philosophical Investigations, and claims that the two philosophers do not share the same concept of the term transcendental. Finally, the question arises as to whether these Kantian veins can be considered as a proof of the unity of Wittgenstein's thought.

Density is at the centre of urban change, and is often politicised. Building on Geographical and Urban scholarship, we set out a critical approach to understanding density through a focus on value. Following a review of key approaches to density, we show that while value is often at stake in efforts to manage, change, defend, or promote densities of different kinds, it has rarely been the explicit focus of critical research on density. We address this by outlining how density propositions entail a politics of value through three inter-related urban domains: speculation, regulation, and the popular, followed by consequences for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the authors try to clarify the relations between Meinong's and Russell's thoughts on the ontological ideas of existence. The Meinongian theory on non-existent objects does not in itself violate the principle of non-contradiction, since the problem that this hypothesis offers to the theory of definite descriptions is not so much a logical problem as an ontological problem. To demonstrate this we will establish what we believe are the two main theses basic to the theory of descriptions: the epistemological thesis and logical thesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

G.E. Moore, who is one of the founders of analytic philosophy, regarding philosophy as an analytic activity and thinks that philosophical problems could be solved only by means of analytical methods and ordinary language. He has recourse to the method of linguistic analysis in order to justify knowledge of external world and objective beings and show how we know the objective reality against the thesis of sceptical and subjective philosophy which claims that objective beings cannot be known because of the gap between external world and mind. For this reason, in the first part of this study, the analyses of G.E. Moore on the essence and function of propositions will be presented, and the difference between true and false propositions is revealed in the context of faith. Then, through looking relationship between belief and fact and truth which is stated in the proposition, it has been sought an answer for the question “Is there an objective truth independent from the consciousness of the subject?” in the light of G.E. Moore’s thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The speech genre of curse analyzed in the article belongs to the most ancient genres of oral communication in Kazakh culture. It is based on belief in the magical function of the word, in the ability to bring harm and evil to the cursed with the help of magical powers. Kargys is a pattern, its stable verbal formulas are preserved in the linguistic consciousness of the modern native speakers, despite the fact that the archaic foundations of the pattern may not be fully understood by them. The aim of the article is to analyze the aspects of the propositional structure of the genre of curse in the Kazakh language, to typologize the nature of harm and evil inflicted on the addressee, to identify some cultural, linguistic and pragmatic features of the speech genre. For example, for the feasibility and strength of the influence of the kargys, the status of the one who curses and the one who is cursed is important – the age, the family, the social status. The objectification of the verbal predicate in the kargys is significant and fundamental, even the contracted forms preserve it. The actants in the structure of the proposition of curse are optional; their elimination is carried out on various semantic and pragmatic grounds. The Kazakh language provides formulas for counteracting the destructive genre of curse, including the formula for depriving the force of the curse and the formula for returning it to the one who curses.

Статья посвящена описанию неоднозначного, многослойного и многоаспектного временного пространства простого осложнённого предложения. Цель: выявить значение как абсолютного, так и относительного времени, представить комплексную природу и синкретичных характер выражения таксиса и дейксиса в нетрадиционных осложнённых моделях русского предложения. Анализ выражения времени, таксиса и дейксиса разноструктурными средствами языка в их системных отношениях подтверждает тезис не только о семантическом, но и грамматическом (структурном) осложнении рассматриваемых предложений. Впервые в аспекте темпоральной семантики проанализированы конструкции с дуплексивами (членами двойной зависимости) и таксисные отношения в предложениях с объектным и целевым инфинитивом, где также обнаружено семантическое и грамматическое осложнение.

Objective To explore the influence of reasonable examination contents and checkpoints on the training outcomes of continuing medical education. Methods From September 2020 to February 2021, we carried out online and offline continuing medical education training for clinicians in maternal and child health centers in 16 districts of Beijing. The effect was assessed after the training. The assessment contents were assigned following the characteristics of continuing medical education, and examination checkpoints were set up according to the teaching content and arrangement to evaluate the learning effect. Results A total of three sections of online training programs were completed with 10 courses in each section and one examination was conducted at the end of each section. A total of 48 examinations were completed in 16 district maternal and child health care hospitals. The offline training was undertaken by the maternal and child health care hospitals in 16 districts of Beijing. Four to six training courses were completed in each hospital and one offline training examination was completed at the end of the course. The average score of test after three times of online training in 16 district maternal and child health care hospitals was 88.56±4.76, 93.39±3.22 and 90.71±5.18, respectively. Offline test average score was 88.65±4.35. Most students chose ‘excellent’ and ‘good’ for offline training satisfaction. Conclusions Reasonable establishment of examination node and examination content in medical continuing education may have positive influence on training outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite Wittgenstein's philosophical activities in Britain and his strong inclination towards analytic philosophy, there are also non-analytic elements in his thought which are rooted in classical German thought, especially in Kant's critical philosophy. We can, therefore, detect Kantian elements in Wittgenstein's thought. Concerning the main aim of this research, i.e., to show the Kantian veins of Wittgenstein's thought, the following elements can be enumerated: critique of Metaphysics, delimitation of expression of thought, transcendentality of logic and ethics, problem of Metaphysics and science, refutation of private language. Given the evolution of Wittgenstein's though, this paper aims to show that, first, these similarities and parallels can be drawn not only from the Tractatus but also from the Philosophical Investigations. Second, there are fundamental differences between Wittgenstein's commentators, for instance, P.M.S Hacker argues against the transcendental reading of both the Tractatus and the Philosophical Investigations, and claims that the two philosophers do not share the same concept of the term transcendental. Finally, the question arises as to whether these Kantian veins can be considered as a proof of the unity of Wittgenstein's thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chapter Θ10 of Aristotle's Metaphysics is traditionally taken to be about the truth of intuitions, namely episodes of an immediate and sub-propositional grasp of entities. This exegesis however saddles Aristotle with a broken-backed theory of truth because in other passages of his works he claims that truth and falsehood apply only to items of a propositional nature and denies that sub-propositional items can be true or false. An alternative exegesis is preferable which takes Θ10 to be about the truth of existential statements and judgements concerning simple items. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay has two parts: 1) a negative or destructive one, which consists of showing that there is no anomaly, even apparent, in the concept of 'truth' (and 'falsehood'), so that the available theories of truth are not justified, either to solve or react to this alleged problem; 2) a positive or constructive one, which consists of proposing a characterization of truth (and falsehood) based solely on the "objective aspect" of this concept. Here, I will associate the concept of 'truth' with the concept of 'existence', taking them as two different species of a common genus. Along the way, I will critically analyze the theories of truth "available on the market" and argue that truth only has an "objective aspect". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A port has traditionally played such a fundamental role as cargo handling within the concept of containerisation and multi-modalism. Today, however, the port is required to become more aligned with global supply chains: that is, integration – more specifically, termed 'port supply chain integration' (PSCI). Increasing scale and volume of sea-based trade results in a situation where the port is blamed as a source of environmental and social externalities – 'port sustainability' (PS) being stemmed from. Existing studies have emphasised the role of PSCI with a few economic facets; due attention has not been given to sustainability aspects. Bearing these issues in mind, this paper attempts to conceptually discuss a claim that PSCI has a potential influence on PS and to propose a so-called 'sustainably integrated port supply chain' by establishing a conceptual framework linked to a series of testable propositions. Using systematic review, this paper delineates the role of supply chain integration in achieving sustainability in ports, and it investigates the conceptual interactions among PSCI and PS constructs and variables in a holistic approach. Propositions to be suggested from this line of exercise can be used as a basis for an empirical test towards establishing a theory applicable to the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to identify the modality and proposition in the movie "Kena: Bridge of Spirit" using Charles J. Fillmore's case grammar theory. This type of research is descriptive qualitative research. The object of this research is the movie "Kena: Bridge of Spirit" directed by Hunter Schmidt. The data collection techniques used are listening and note-taking methods. Data analysis in this study went through three stages: data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing. The data validation techniques used are to increase persistence and triangulation. The results of the research on the movie "Kena: Bridge of Spirit" based on Fillmore's case grammar theory consists of four modalities (tense, negation, mode, and aspect) and ten propositions (agent, experience, place, instrument, time, objective, purpose, accompaniment, source, and benefactive).

Copyright of Análisis Filosófico is the property of Sociedad Argentina de Analisis Filosofico and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Could there be an implicature whose content is not propositional? Grice's canon is somewhat ambivalent on this question, but such figures as Sperber & Wilson, Davis, and Lepore & Stone presume that there cannot be, and argue that this causes glaring failures within the Gricean programme. Building on work by McDowell and Buchanan, I argue that, on the contrary, the notion of non-propositional implicature is very much worth investigating. I show how the notion has promise to illuminate the content of many sorts of complex utterance—from the cases of verbal irony, metaphorical usage, slurring, insinuation, and (some kinds of) humour, to various others which involve expressive or evaluative content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to traditional theories of the nature of propositions, propositions are primary vehicles of representations. An act-type theoiy of the nature of propositions holds that traditional tlieories cannot satisfactorily account for the representational character of propositions. We should tlierefore set aside the traditional tlieories. According to an act-type theory, when an agent predicates a property of an object, she represents the object as something that possesses that property. That is, the agent is the primary vehicle of the property of representation in virtue of the act of predication that she does. On tliis theory, propositions are types of tokens of the act of predication, inheriting the property of representation from those tokens. In this article, I introduce two main versions of the act-type theory: Soames's and Hanks's. I will then overview the main weaknesses and strengths of these two versions. Considering the flaws of botli versions, I conclude that neither can qualify as a successful act-type theoiy. Moreover, given the strengths and weaknesses of the two versions, I show the conditions that an act-type theory must fulfil in order to qualify as successful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]