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Using a unique data set of Chinese firm-product-destination level export on the period 2000–2013, this paper investigates the effect of real exchange rate changes on multi-product firms' price setting decisions on export product with heterogeneous levels of quality. We find less exchange rate pass-through (ERPT) for higher-quality products. Meanwhile, the ERPT is higher when the Renminbi (RMB) appreciates than when it depreciates, and product quality has a greater effect on the ERPT during RMB depreciation. Furthermore, higher distribution costs lead to more pricing-to-market (PTM) and less pass-through. This heterogeneity in ERPT is also robust in different samples and econometric specifications. Combined with the existing studies on the effects of firm heterogeneity on the ERPT, our study helps piece together a more complete picture of the heterogeneity across firms in their reaction to export prices when the exchange rate changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – Brazil uses the dollar as a vehicle currency to invoice its exports. This fact produces a tendency toward equalizing the prices of products in dollars in the international market and reducing the ability of firms to practice pricing-to-market (PTM). This study aims to evaluate the hypothesis by estimating error correction models in panel data, obtaining estimates of PTM for 25 manufacturing products exported by Brazil between 2010 and 2020. Design/methodology/approach – This study uses the correlated common effect estimator proposed by Pesaran (2006) and Chudik and Pesaran (2015b) to estimate the PTM coefficients. Findings – Results of this study indicate that exporters practice local-currency pricing stability for dollar prices. This study obtains that Brazilian exporters tend to stabilize their dollar price for exports, reducing heterogeneity between destination markets. The results are in agreement with the hypothesis of the prevalence of the coalescing effect of Goldberg and Tille (2008) and lower sensitivity of the markup adjustment to the specific market, as pointed out by Corsetti et al. (2018). The pricing of Brazilian exports in dollars reflects a profit maximization strategy that considers an international price system based on global demand for products. Originality/value – In addition to analyzing the dollar role in the pricing of Brazilian exports through the triangular decomposition, this study also shows the importance of examining the cross-section dependence of errors, considering the heterogeneous cointegration in export pricing models and producing PTM estimates for short-term and long-term.

I study the proximity-concentration trade-off faced by two multiproduct multinational companies (MNCs) that operate in two countries under horizontal product differentiation. In this context, characterized by two-way trade and foreign direct investment, the trade-off regulates the domestic stock of investment (concentration) against the foreign stock (proximity) in a way that is centred around the exploitation of large market shares and market power. I show that MNCs follow pricing-to-market that mirrors the proximity-concentration trade-off, and I characterize how market shares, prices, and markups react to changes in investment and trade frictions. Endogenous variables turn out to be closely interrelated across markets and firms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using newly released public data on beer prices in the state of California, we construct a large dataset (approximately 2 million observations) that includes beer prices and packaging configurations. We merge this dataset with brewery attributes and county demographics to explore pricing differentials across California, the U.S.'s largest brewing state. We provide evidence of potential pricing-to-market conducted by macro breweries across the three-tier distribution system where craft breweries do not. In addition, we describe package attributes that exhibit price differentials across brewery types. We make the cleaned data available to the public and provide avenues for future research that may be addressed with this new data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing number of bilateral and regional free trade agreements (FTAs) alongside exchange rate volatility has raised a question on whether these affect exporters' pricing behaviors, hence competitiveness. This study contributes to this topic by examining Australian dairy export price behavior across eight major markets taking into account the extent of pass‐through of exchange rate and tariff as well as FTAs between Australia and its trading partners. Commodity‐level dairy trade data from 1996 to 2016 and the feasible generalized least squares methods are employed. The study finds incomplete pass‐through at the industry level. The dairy export prices decrease by 1.7% if Australian dollar depreciates by 10%, while 10% tariff reduction is associated with 0.7% export price cut. Results at the commodity level show different pricing behaviors across destination and commodity markets. Overall, apart from the tariff effects, there is minimal evidence of the impacts of FTAs on dairy export prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimating time-varying thresholds as a proxy for exporter's predicted exchange rates, this study proposes a new approach to analyse possible asymmetric behaviour of exchange rate pass-through (ERPT) or pricing-to-market (PTM) in Japanese exports between yen appreciation and depreciation periods. Constructing the industry-specific nominal effective exchange rate on a contract (invoice) currency basis, we perform the multivariate threshold near-vector autoregressive (near-MTVAR) estimation and reveal a strong tendency of symmetric ERPT in the short-run, between yen appreciation and depreciation periods. From the 2000s, however, Japanese machinery exporters increased the degree of PTM even in the long-run, while other industries raised the degree of long-run ERPT, reflecting the difference of product differentiation across industries. This evidence has significant implications for the recent unresponsiveness of the Japanese trade balance to the large depreciation of the yen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fig and grape have a high position in job creation and foreign exchange earnings for Iran. Moreover, these two products also have the same international position in terms of production and exports. This study has examined and compared price discrimination in the two markets of fig and grape exports using Exchange Rate Pass-Through and Pricing To Market (PTM) behavior approaches. The econometric analysis using the Panel-Corrected Standard Errors (PCSE) model showed that fig exporters had the ability to discriminate prices in the Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Sweden, and Russia. Furthermore, fig and grape have an equal position in terms of production and exports, but the power of exporters are more in the fig export market and have better conditions for applying price discrimination. Therefore, it is recommended that the principled export of agricultural products be adopted according to global consumer demand by identifying target markets. The results of the analysis of the asymmetric effects of exchange rates on fig's exports illustrate that these effects are symmetrical in the market of all countries; however, it is asymmetrical in exporting grapes to Singapore, Sweden, and Saudi Arabia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this paper, we show theoretically and empirically that the US quantitative easing (QE) policy results in lower exchange rate pass‐through into the destination prices of Chinese exporters. In addition, the more the exchange rate in the export destination appreciates than the Chinese yuan, the stronger this effect becomes. Our model combines various marginal effects of QE policy on the destinations of Chinese exporters and variable markups of export firms due to strategic complementarities. The model predicts that the impact of US QE policy on the pass‐through of Chinese exporters depends on its spillover on the exchange rate between China and the export destination of different firms. We provide strong support for the model predictions using Chinese firm‐product‐level data with information on export destinations. The baseline result and the heterogeneity we find in the response of exchange rate pass‐through of Chinese exporters to US QE policy remain robust to alternative measures of samples and controls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The EU is a major player in the global wheat market. This paper examines the pricing behaviour of EU wheat exporters using a pricing-to-market ( PTM) analysis. Wheat is an exemplary product for testing PTM theories as it is widely and frequently traded, and largely unbranded. We estimate the relationship between export unit values and exchange rates using quarterly panel data for 11 EU export destinations for 2000-2013. Results show that there is a meaningful long-run relationship between export unit values and exchange rates, but there is little evidence of differential mark-ups between EU export markets. Belarus and Iceland are exceptions where exporters from the EU appear to exercise local currency price stabilisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We show that an American monetary shock wields an influence, though limited, over the Lebanese output in accordance with the literature advances. However, as we are waiting for a stronger transmission of U.S. short-term rates to Lebanese short-term rates, we notice that this transmission is weak in the first year. The result can be explained by the presence of pricing-to-market. After the end of the first year, we find the traditional result where the increase in the American interest rate is transmitted integrally to the Lebanese interest rate. We recognize this phenomenon as the dollarization effect.

Russia emerged as an important wheat exporter in recent years raising the question of how this will affect international wheat markets. In particular developing countries - the main destination of Russian wheat exports - could be harmed by aggressive pricing behaviour. This article analyses the exertion of price discrimination by Russian wheat exporting firms based on Krugman's pricing-to-market hypothesis. We apply Knetter's panel model to a firm-level dataset and find evidence for price-discriminating behaviour by Russian firms in 25 out of 61 destination countries over the period 2002-2011. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses incomplete exchange rate pass-through (ERPT) and pricing-to-market (PTM) by proposing an optimal control model of dynamic monopolistic pricing on a foreign market, which accounts for dynamic demand effects (such as diffusion or saturation) and learning curve effects. It is shown how the optimal dynamic export pricing results in partial or full ERPT in the long-term equilibrium. Moreover, transitional price dynamics are illustrated, which may explain dumping, i.e., temporary prices below unit costs, and (asymmetric) short-run overshooting dynamics of the optimal export price level as a reaction to exchange rate changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pricing decisions of exporters who are facing imperfect competition in their destination markets might depend on exchange rate changes. While empirical literature often assumes that the impact of the exchange rate on the exporters' prices is linear and the markup adjustment does not depend on magnitude or direction of the exchange rate change (or allows for short-run asymmetries only), we question this statement and test for the long-run hysteresis and asymmetry of pricing-to-market (PTM). Using the German export beer market as an example, we show that both types of nonlinearities play an important role in PTM decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we examine the welfare cost of renouncing monetary policy autonomy in a model that includes labor mobility and pricing-to-market (PTM) behavior in firms. We find that renouncing monetary policy autonomy becomes a cost of currency integration when the consumption basket weights differ between candidate countries and when country-specific total factor productivity (TFP) shocks hit economies, even when the union fulfills the classic optimum currency area theory of labor mobility. We also found that a firm's PTM behavior has a significant effect on the welfare implications of currency integration combined with labor mobility. For instance, currency integration does not produce greater welfare losses in the PTM case (where the labor input weights differ across member countries and asymmetric labor disutility shocks occur), although greater welfare losses arise in the case of producer currency pricing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conventional estimation method of the pricing-to-market (the PTM) model in the international trade literature is a within model of panel regression of export prices on exchange rates with time and country dummies. Previous studies have found a significant coefficient parameter in exchange rate variable, which is only indicative of short-run pricing-to-market for multiple export destinations rather than long-run pricing behavior. This paper examines a long- run pricing-to-market for U.S. broiler meat export markets, using "between" panel specification. Findings indicate that the U.S. pricing-to-market behavior of exporters is both transient and persistently long. These results clearly imply that the implementation of a long-run pricing-to-market strategy in the U.S. broiler meat exports mitigates the rising imbalance between the domestic production and consumption via incomplete exchange rate pass-through. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use micro data on Irish producer prices to provide clean evidence on pricing-to-market across a broad range of manufacturing sectors. We have monthly observations on prices charged by the same plant for the same product to buyers in Ireland and the UK, two markets segmented by variable exchange rates. Assuming that relative marginal cost is constant across markets within a plant and a product, this allows us to observe the behaviour of the markup in the UK market relative to the home market. To identify pricing-to-market that goes beyond what is mechanically due to price stickiness, we condition on episodes where prices change. When prices are invoiced in local currency, conditional on prices changing, the ratio of the markup in the foreign market to the markup in the home market increases one-for-one with depreciations of home against foreign currency and decreases one-for-one with appreciations of home against foreign currency, a very particular form of pricing-to-market. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The law of one price asserts that, with costless trade, prices for identical goods in different countries should be equal after accounting for the exchange rate. The empirical literature suggests that exchange rate pass-through to prices is low and that the law of one price fails; instead, firms are more likely to price to market. This study adds to the literature by examining the pricing strategy of comic book firms within the context of the competition's pricing behavior in a duopoly industry. Comic books, uniquely, display their retail prices in multiple countries on their cover giving us detailed information about the pricing behavior of each individual firm and their competition which allows us to test a pricing-to-market model. We find that an empirical model of an imperfectly applied law of one price outperforms a simple competitive, pricing-to-market model of pricing. Retail exchange rate pass-through rates between Canada and the United States average 76.8 %. This high exchange rate pass-through rate for comic books exists despite the existence of sticky prices and convenience pricing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies on the relationship between exchange rates and traded goods prices typically find evidence of incomplete pass-through, usually explained by pricing-to-market behaviour. Although economic theory predicts that incomplete pass-through may also be linked to the presence of non-tariff barriers to trade, variables reflecting such a link is rarely included in empirical models. In this paper, we estimate a pricing-to-market model for Norwegian import prices on textiles and wearing apparels, controlling for non-tariff barriers to trade and shift in imports from high- to low-cost countries. We apply the cointegrated VAR approach and develop measures of foreign prices based on superlative price indices (including the Törnqvist and Fischer price indices) and a data calibration method necessary to approximate relative price levels across countries. Our measures of foreign prices thereby account for inflationary differences and varying import shares and price level differences (known as the China effect) among trading partners. We show that these measures of foreign prices, unlike standard measures used in the pricing-to-market literature, are likely to produce unbiased estimates of pass-through. Once the China effect is controlled for, we find little evidence that pass-through has changed alongside trade liberalisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims at showing heterogeneity in the degree of exchange rate pass-through to import prices in major advanced economies at three different levels: (1) across destination markets; (2) across types of exporters [distinguishing developed economy (DE) from emerging economy (EE) exporters] and (3) over time. Based on monthly data over the period 1991-2007, the results show first that large destination markets exhibit the lowest degree of pass-through. The degree of pass-through for goods imported from EEs is also significantly lower than for those from DEs. Regarding the evolution over time, no clear change in pricing behaviours can be identified and the well-identified decline in the exchange rate pass-through between the 1980s and 1990s appears to have stopped during the period considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Pricing-to-market (PTM) is often reported to be adopted by exporters, who have invested in their presence on international markets and are interested in keeping and developing their market shares. Then, a markup adjustment is used to partially offset changes of the exchange rate, which are unfavorable for their foreign customers, in order to keep the price level in the importer's currency relatively unchanged. With only few exceptions, empirical literature often considers PTM adjustments to be linear and symmetric. If asymmetry is allowed, PTM is often regarded as contemporaneous, which is a very simplifying assumption, given the goals pursued by exporters employing PTM strategies. This paper applies the dynamic autoregressive distributed lag (ADRL) approach popularized by and its nonlinear extension by to the data of German sugar confectionery exports to various destination markets. It turns out that in the long-run PTM is neither linear nor symmetric. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a theoretical model to analyse exchange rate pass-through when there is cross-border production sharing. With production sharing, between two nations, we have pass-through at two different levels, one at the level of the imported parts and components used in making the final good and the other at the level of the final good. We find the higher the pricing-to-market at the intermediate good level, the lower the pass-through for the final good. The model is further extended to analyse three-country production sharing, substitution between two alternate sources of imported inputs. Finally, we draw some policy implications. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper estimates the extent and evolution of exchange rate pass-through into import prices in Singapore for the period 1980 to 2005. Our results indicate that exchange rate pass-through into Singapore's import prices is 25% in the short-run and slightly higher at 29% for the long-run. There is evidence to suggest that the pass-through elasticity has trended downwards from 0.4 in 1983 to around 0.3 by 1987, after which it has remained fairly stable. The paper also examines the macroeconomic determinants of Singapore's exchange rate pass-through. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, the issue of a decline in exchange rate pass-through has gained much more attention. Taylor conjectures that a worldwide decline in exchange rate pass-through is related to the low and stable inflation in many industrialized countries since the early 1990s. Developments of ‘new open-economy macroeconomics’ also cast renewed attention on exchange rate pass-through. Theoretical research shows that the choice of an optimal exchange rate regime and the transmission of monetary policy impacts depend crucially on the exporter's price setting behaviour. There are many studies on the pass-through of Japanese exports, yet most studies simply use the industry-breakdown data on export price indices, which is insufficient to assess pass-through patterns in regional trade. Significantly, highly disaggregated (HS 9-digit level) commodity data are used here to evaluate the extent of pass-through by commodity and by destination. We investigate and compare the extent of pass-through to East Asia, Europe, and the US. We also examine whether there is any difference in the degree of pass-through in the pre- and post-Asian crisis era. Results suggest the most pricing-to-market (PTM) occurs in exports to the US market followed by significant, but less PTM in Europe. Virtually no PTM is found in Japanese exports to East Asia. Also, there is no clear evidence of either increasing or decreasing pass-through over time. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using product level U.S. export data from 1989 to 2001, there is evidence that U.S. exporters price discriminate across markets. Variation in the quality of the products is one reason for the observed price differentiation. U.S. exporters also price discriminate based on transaction costs. Finally, U.S. exporters practice pricing-to-market and this pricing strategy is another source of the variations in U.S. export prices. Some of these conclusions though are weakened when export prices toward the center of the price distribution are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We employ a vertical differentiation model to examine the potential bias in pricing-to-market results when using export unit values aggregating differentiated products. Our results show that: (i) false evidence of pricing-to-market is always found when using unit values, whether the law of one price holds or not; and (ii) the size of the bias increases with the level of product differentiation. Our simulation results support those conceptual findings. Thus, some of the positive pricing-to-market results in the literature could be an artifact of the product heterogeneity embodied in unit values rather than evidence of imperfect competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Results of empirical research have revealed a characteristic hump-shaped effect of a monetary policy shock on output: The effect of the shock builds to a peak after several months and then gradually dies out. We analyze, in the context of a ‘new open economy macroeconomics’ model, factors that imply a hump-shaped response of output to a monetary policy shock. We find that a hump-shaped effect of a monetary policy shock on output is likely to result if the model features a “catching-up with the Joneses” effect, pricing-to-market behavior of firms, and imperfect international financial market integration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We decompose real appreciation in tradables derived from producer price indexes in three Central European countries between the pricing-to-market component (disparity) and the local relative price component (the substitution ratio). Appreciation is only partially explained by local relative prices. The rest is absorbed by disparity, depending on the size of the no-arbitrage band. The observed disparity fluctuates in a wider band for differentiated products than for commodity like goods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the impact of India's policy reforms on exchange rate pass-through into import and export prices, using panel data (at one-digit SITC level) for pre- (1980–90) and post-reform (1991–2001) periods. While the pass-through into import prices has declined, the pass-through into export prices (in USD terms) has increased during the 1990s. The results suggest that, relative to rupee depreciation, Indian exporters increased their USD prices around 20% in the 1980s, but decreased them by around 70% in the 1990s. Moreover, the number of sectors exhibiting some degree of pass-through increased in the 1990s (six), relative to the 1980s (three). These changes may be attributable to the elimination of currency and trade controls, which increased competition among firms and fostered a concern with market share gains in the 1990s over an attempt to use depreciations to increase profits in the 1980s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using the UK as the base country, this study investigates the nature of the inherent non-stationarity of the major bilateral real exchange rates for the post Bretton Woods era. Non-linearity is shown to be pervasive in both the changes in the real exchange rates and the residuals of the ADF model. The study proposes that misalignments of nominal exchange rates may work as signals in the export market and the financial market. The study, intuitively, argues that the dynamic motions of misalignments cause confusion to exporters as they take it as price changing positions by their foreign competitors, to the extent that exporters find it easier in some situations to resort to habits or routines in setting up their international prices rather than to attempts at optimization to reach a Stackelberg price position. The study uses a non-linear three-regime SETAR model as a parsimonious representation of this asymmetric pricing behaviour. Fluctuations in a bilateral real exchange rate, in excess and beyond fluctuations in relative prices, which give rise to non-linearity in the second moment of real exchange rate, are attributed to the dynamic motions of speculation on the nominal exchange rate in the financial market triggered continuously by signals of misalignments. This non-linearity is proved to be non-detectable but a second-generation SETAR-IGARCH model seems to be capable of capturing this type of non-linearity, implying that signals in the financial market are fully anticipated by rational agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pricing-to-market (PTM) theory suggests that exporting monopolistic firms adjust their destination-specific mark-ups in the face of exchange rate shocks. A large proportion of the existing evidence for PTM comes from Wald tests applied to OLS- and IV-estimated parameters of single-equation models. Such tests can seriously over-reject in the presence of endogeneity and weak instruments so that some of the available results supporting PTM could be spurious. In this paper we revisit the PTM evidence for Japanese and German exporting firms in the transportation equipment industry. Using the model of Marston (1990), we apply exogeneity and LR-LIML-based tests for which the error probability is controlled irrespective of the quality of the available instruments. Our results show right-hand-side endogeneity in almost all of the examined PTM equations. In addition, we find that statistical decisions often differ depending on whether they are based on the traditional Wald test or on our proposed test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary. This paper develops a procedure for testing hypotheses on the full set of cointegration parameters of the I(2) model. It applies this procedure to the analysis of small-country import price determination, extending the standard empirical framework to allow for variables integrated of order two. The empirical analysis of Danish data for 1975–1995 yields a fully specified long-run structure of the I(2) model in terms of stationary pricing-to-market and inventory relations, a nominal second-order stochastic trend embodied in equal proportions in domestic and foreign price levels, and a real first-order trend driving the relative prices and the real interest rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]