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Oil shale's natural floatability depends on its organic content which is negatively affected by the presence of inorganic impurities. Thus, the feed preparation, particularly in the crushing and grinding processes, affects the liberation of organic components as well as their surface properties. In this article, attrition scrubbing and ball milling, as different feed preparation techniques, were used to study their effects on oil shale flotation. The ground products using either technique were floated, using either pine oil or sodium oleate. The flotation results indicated that the organic recovery was improved using both reagents with higher improvement in the case of pine oil. Starting from 10% organics in the feed, the floated organics, at pH 3 using 0.4 kg/t pine oil and particle size of −0.1 + 0.045 mm, are improved to 23.5% and 17.8% using ball mill and attrition products, respectively. Interestingly, at a higher pine oil dosage, floated attrition products result in a higher grade and recovery than the ball mill products. The shearing mechanism in attrition is found to be more suitable for liberating organics in oil shale whereas maximum organic content and recovery of 25.7% and 91.4%, respectively were achieved using 7.5 kg/t pine oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research study, fuel blends of pine oil and waste cooking oil biodiesel (P/WCO) were examined for combustion analysis, engine performance, and emission characteristics tests. Improved combustion and engine performance were achieved using a toroidal re-entrant combustion chamber (TCC) and hydrogen supply as a dual fuel. The combustion behavior of fuel blends and hydrogen fuel was examined by varying the engine load at a constant speed. The results revealed that significant reduction in the specific fuel consumption for rich pine oil. Thus, a slightly lesser energy share from the fuel blends and a higher energy share from the hydrogen fuel was required for the engine to maintain the same brake power. Lower viscosity, higher flash point, and presence of oxygen in the pine oil enhance the combustion rate and brake thermal efficiency. Furthermore, hydrogen induction in the engine improves the flame velocity. A lesser crevice volume in the TCC can trap the unburnt fuel which can further increase the combustion efficiency. Thus, rich pine oil with the support of hydrogen induction in TCC causes advanced ignition, improved combustion, and more heat release during the combustion. The investigation results revealed that hydrogen induction increases the heat release rate and peak pressure by 7.4% and 2.67%, respectively. Similarly, the maximum of 24.55% increase in BTE and 18.22% reduction in BSFC was observed due to a constant 10 lpm hydrogen induction. Furthermore, hydrogen fuel significantly reduces the emissions such as CO, HC, CO 2 , and smoke. However, more NO x was generated due to more heat release rate during combustion. Thus, pine oil and waste cooking oil biodiesel blends with the support of hydrogen induction in TCC improve the engine performance and mitigate the toxic pollutants and can be a suitable alternative to diesel fuel. • Combustion effects of pine oil and waste cooking oil biodiesel blends were examined. • The influence of hydrogen addition in dual fuel mode is highlighted. • Impact of the toroidal re-entrant combustion chamber concerning BTE, BSFC, and emissions was discussed. • The energy share between biodiesel and hydrogen is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current research focuses on the impacts of pine oil injection and hydrogen induction separately with hemp oil methyl ester (HOME) in the single cylinder diesel engine in dual fuel‐reactivity controlled compression ignition (DF‐RCCI) combustion mode. The engine was tested under a DF‐RCCI mode for the different energy shares of 10% pine oil with HOME (10P‐HOME), 30% pine oil with HOME (30P‐HOME), 3‐lpm hydrogen with HOME (3‐lpmH2‐HOME), and 6‐lpm hydrogen with HOME (6‐lpmH2‐HOME) separately at 345 °CA bTDC of low reactivity fuel (pine oil and hydrogen) and 23°C bTDC injection timing of high reactivity fuel (HOME). The results showed a higher Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) of 7.44%, 5.32%, 5.72%, and 2.46% for 6‐lpmH2‐HOME, 3‐lpmH2‐HOME, 30P‐HOME, and 10P‐HOME fuel shares, respectively, over the conventional diesel combustion (CDC) at full load. 30P‐HOME, 3‐lpmH2‐HOME, and 6‐lpmH2‐HOME fuel combinations recorded 4.08% 4.42%, and 5.69% lower brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), respectively, at full load. When comparing DF‐RCCI combustion to CDC, an increase in the heat release rate (HRR) of 2.89%–26.50% and a rise in peak cylinder pressure of 0.77%–12.99% were observed. The 30P‐HOME, 3‐lpmH2‐HOME, and 6‐lpmH2‐HOME emit less smoke in DF‐RCCI combustion mode by 13.06%, 4.84%, and 7.26%, respectively at full load condition. When using 30P‐HOME the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) decreased by 3.50% at full load condition. At part and full load conditions, the 30P‐HOME fuel share reduced oxides of nitrogen (NOX) emissions by 3.93% and 5.26%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in developed and developing nations is increasing day by day. The monotherapy doesn't fit best for AD due to chronic treatment. This work aimed to prepare the liposomes coloaded with Donepezil and pine oil intended for adjuvant effect. Pine oil was selected due to its amyloid disaggregation and AChE inhibition property. The thin film hydration method with sonication was selected to formulate ultra-small-sized unilamellar vesicles. Apart from this formulated vesicle were subject to particle size, morphological, release, nasal ciliotoxicity and cellular uptake studies. The PDI, particle size, and zeta potential of the final egg lecithin-based liposome were found to be 0.19, 129 nm, and -27.5 mV, respectively, stable at 4° and 25°C. SEM microscopy of oil-loaded liposomes exhibits a crystalline cubic shape and is compared with alone drug-loaded liposomes that are spherical. AChE inhibition activity was found to be higher in combination when compared with others. The prepared liposomes were safe when studied for nasal ciliotoxicity studies and rapid uptake by C6 cells with complete internalization. This study demonstrated the development and potential of the vesicular system that carries valuable characteristics and overcomes patient compliance concerns that prove to be novel therapeutics for managing AD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Under high ambient pressure (5 MPa) and different injection pressures (90, 120, and 150 MPa), a high‐speed imaging technique was carried out to comparatively investigate the macroscopic spray characteristics of diesel with three different types of blended fuel in a constant volume chamber. The oxygenated fuels were n‐butanol (B), pine oil (P), and 2,5‐dimethylfuran (DMF). All their blending ratio with diesel were 20%. Results showed that less viscosity could be improved the spray characteristics of the fuel in the range of experimental conditions. Then, the tested fuels had a longer penetration and a greater spray area with increasing the injection pressure from 90 to 150 MPa. On the other hand, the percentage increases in the mean spray cone angle of D100, B20, P20, and DMF20 were 3%, 4.4%, 2.4%, and 2.9%, respectively. At the same experimental condition, the spray penetrations of DMF20 and P20 were larger than that of D100, but the spray penetration of B20 was basically similar to D100. Besides, the performance of the spray cone angle and spray area were D100

Under high ambient pressure (5 MPa) and different injection pressures (90, 120, and 150 MPa), a high‐speed imaging technique was carried out to comparatively investigate the macroscopic spray characteristics of diesel with three different types of blended fuel in a constant volume chamber. The oxygenated fuels were n‐butanol (B), pine oil (P), and 2,5‐dimethylfuran (DMF). All their blending ratio with diesel were 20%. Results showed that less viscosity could be improved the spray characteristics of the fuel in the range of experimental conditions. Then, the tested fuels had a longer penetration and a greater spray area with increasing the injection pressure from 90 to 150 MPa. On the other hand, the percentage increases in the mean spray cone angle of D100, B20, P20, and DMF20 were 3%, 4.4%, 2.4%, and 2.9%, respectively. At the same experimental condition, the spray penetrations of DMF20 and P20 were larger than that of D100, but the spray penetration of B20 was basically similar to D100. Besides, the performance of the spray cone angle and spray area were D100 < B20 < P20 < DMF20. In addition, the comprehensive influence was that blending oxygenated fuels would be a benefit for developing fuel atomization and the air–fuel mixture of conventional diesel fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The exhaust emissions from automotive diesel engines are successfully controlled over the years by adopting different combustion strategies and after treatment devices, whereas the combustion induced vibration and noise are the major pollutant in off-road vehicle engines and yet to be optimized. In the present study, a twin cylinder, Simpson's S-217 tractor diesel engine was used to evaluate the performance, combustion, vibration, and noise characteristics, using biofuel blends. For this study, the blends of pine oil — soapnut oil biodiesel (P75SNB25), diesel — soapnut oil biodiesel (SNB20) and diesel were used as fuel. The pine oil used in this research was purchased and used in its neat form. The soapnut oil was extracted from the soapnut seeds by cold pressing method and trans-esterified in two stages by using methanol and catalysts. The experimental results revealed that the performance and combustion characteristics of the blend P75SNB25 was superior to diesel and the blend SNB20 was slightly inferior to diesel. For the blend P75SNB25, the amplitude of acceleration with respect to time was reduced by 19.48% and 11.58% at no load and full load conditions respectively, whereas for the blend SNB20, the amplitude of acceleration showed a reduction of 14.27% and 9.46% at no load and full load conditions respectively in comparison with diesel operation. But both the blends P75SNB25 and SNB20 showed a maximum reduction of noise by 2.34% at different engine loads compared to diesel operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper mainly aims at improving the performance and reduction in exhaust emissions of an indirect injection diesel engine fuelled with alternative and modern biofuel Pinus Sylvestris oil, which is traditionally oxygenated and obtained from the resins of the Pinus Sylvestris tree. Its physical and chemical properties are similar to the regular petro-diesel fuel and can be used without transesterification directly in diesel engines. On the other hand, a lower cetane value hangs its direct use in diesel engines. Hence, the experiment followed a complementary approach to supplementing small dosages of gaseous Hydrogen (GH2), which is highly flammable, colorless, odorless, and plenty available to overcome the demerits nature of emissions. Gaseous Hydrogen was inducted through the inlet manifold and controlled by Timed Manifold Injection (TMI) in 5% to 7% of the total energy with the step of 1%. In addition to GH2 supplementation, preheating the inlet air in the range of 40 0 C to 60 0 C with an increment of 10 0 C was allowed to suck through the same inlet manifold. Supplementation of 6% GH2 and 40 0 C preheated air showed better results than conventional diesel operations without any engine modifications. All required NFPA Class I Division 2 Group B standards in this experiment were considered during the handling and use of gaseous Hydrogen.

Oil shale must have a large quantity of kerogen to be of economic benefit, but oil shale with about 30% kerogen is a low-quality ore. Thus, the column flotation technique has been utilized to increase its quality, and the results were analyzed by a reduced two-level factorial design to optimize the interaction effects of seven parameters by response surface modeling. The perturbation plots were used to identify the optimum conditions leading to a predicted maximum kerogen concentration of 53.2% and kerogen recovery of about 81% at estimated optimum conditions of 15% solid concentration, 0.36 cm/s superficial wash water flow rate, 0.28 cm/s superficial feed flow rate, 10 ppm frother concentration, 10 cm froth depth, 1.5 cm/s superficial air flow rate, and 1.5 kg/t pine oil collector dosage. Whereas, the validation experiments under these optimum values gave similar kerogen concentration and recovery of about 52.9–53.6% and 80–82%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main exploitation fuel properties of the B10 blends in the presence (or absence) of glycerol ketal and pine oil additivities have been examined and studied by the ASTM standards. Methanol (or ethanol) biodiesel has been obtained by the transesterification reaction of sunflower oil in the presence of potassium hydroxide. The conversion is 91 and 96% using 1:3 molar ratio of oil to alcohols at 65 and 75°C respectively. The results obtained are demonstrated that the investigated B10 fuel blends with oxygenated compounds have greater potential for diesel engines than, B100 and fossil diesel. The oxidation properties of B10 fuel blends are estimated using NMR spectroscopy. in the presented workit can be concluded that glycerol ketal and pine oil can be successfully used in diesel fuels as antioxidant additivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of the modified intake port with various inclined nozzle angles such as 30°, 60°, and 90° on the diesel engine characteristics when operated with pine oil-diesel blends is investigated. Prior to the engine experimental study, a computational analysis was performed to investigate the impact produced on the flow field parameters of an engine due to modified intake port design. The numerical study revealed increased swirl velocity and turbulence for intake port with a 60° single-pass configuration compared to other design configurations. With evidence of improved swirl velocity and the proposed modified intake port design from the numerical study, an experimental investigation was performed using pine oil blends in the diesel engine with modified intake port configurations. The preliminary engine test findings with standard intake port design indicated that P50 (50% pine oil + 50% diesel) has higher peak engine cylinder pressure and heat release rates than P10 (10% pine oil + 90% diesel). Additionally, the 60° single-pass configuration showed further increase in peak pressure and peak heat release followed by standard and other intake port design configurations. At high load, the P50 blend showed a 12.3% increase in BTE for 60° intake port design configuration in comparison to the standard design configuration. While for the same blend, the engine out emissions like hydrocarbon (HC) and smoke were reduced by about 6.6% and 17.6%, respectively, and nitrogen oxide (NOX) emission was increased by 29% for the 60° single-pass configuration when compared to the standard design configuration. Overall, the intended intake port design modification strategy increased the swirl velocity and turbulence, which improved the air/fuel mixing and combustion. This study identifies 60° single-pass configuration as an optimum design on account of the aforementioned improved engine combustion, performance, and emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Tannins and essential oils are well recognised as antiherbivore compounds. We investigated the relative effectiveness of the polyphenol, tannin, and the essential oils, 1,8-cineole and pine oil, as feeding deterrents against western grey kangaroos. Both groups of secondary metabolites are naturally abundant in many Australian plants. These three metabolite groups were incorporated separately or together into standard pellets for presentation to kangaroos, and their behaviour (sequence of food choice and feeding time) and amounts consumed were observed. The control (with no secondary metabolites) was much preferred. There was a sharp reduction in the ingestion of pellets containing tannins, 1,8-cineole or pine oil. Combinations of the metabolites resulted in almost no consumption. In association with tannin, pellets containing either 1,8-cineole or pine oil were as effective deterrents as both combined. There was a strong correlation between time spent feeding on the different diets and the amount of food consumed, although the rate of intake was markedly slower when secondary metabolites were present. Behavioural observations showed that the amount of food ingested is initially guided by the presence/absence of essential oils, apparently detected by smell, and later by the presence/absence of tannins, by taste. Both groups of secondary metabolites work in concert by stimulating different senses that minimise herbivory by marsupials, such as the western grey kangaroo, and help to explain their abundance in the Australian flora. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vibrio spp. genus is known as a marine indigeneous bacteria. Vibrio parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus and V. harveyi are pathogenic Vibrio. This study aims to assess the sensitivity of three Vibrio species (V parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus and V. harveyi) isolated from shrimp pond against two type of disinfectant with different active compound namely Chloroxylenol (4-Chloro-3,5-dimethylphenol, C8H9ClO) and pine oil. The assessment was done by Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion methods in Zobell agar media with two different concentration (10 and 100 ppm) and replicated in three times. Sensitivity of Vibrio spp. was analized based on the inhibition zone activity produced by disinfectant. Results showed that sensitivity of Vibrio spp. against disinfectant Chloroxylenol 4.8% at 100 ppm were higher than 10 ppm. The increment of V parahaemolyticus was 182 %, V. vulnificus was 47 % and V. harveyi was 43 %, respectively. Susceptibility of antiseptic with Chloroxylenol 4.8% at 100 ppm was arised to 152 % (V. parahaemolyticus), 43 % (V. vulnificus) and 31 % (V. harveyi) when compared to 2.5% pine oil disinfectant. It can be concluded that Chloroxylenol 4,8 % active compound and pine oil were able to inhibit the Vibrio spp. growth.

Ahmad M Eid, Ibraheem Istateyeh, Noura Salhi, Thaer Istateyeh Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, An-Najah National University, Nablus, PalestineCorrespondence: Ahmad M EidPharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology Division, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, An-Najah National University, P.O. Box 7, Nablus, PalestineEmail ahmadeid@najah.eduPurpose: Fusidic acid (FA) and sodium fusidate (SF) have problems in their skin penetration and stability resulting in a reduction in their potency; therefore, the objective of this study was to develop FA and SF nanoemulgels to improve the antibacterial activity of the drugs.Methods: FA and SF nanoemulgel formulations were prepared by the incorporation of FA and SF nanoemulsions with Carbopol hydrogel. First, the drugs were screened for their solubility in different oils and surfactants to choose the suitable oil and surfactants for the drugs, and then the drug nanoemulsion formulations were prepared by a self-nanoemulsifying technique using Tween 80, Span 20 and pine oil. The drug nanoemulgels were evaluated for their particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), rheological behaviour, drug release and anti-microbial activity.Results: Based on the solubility test, pine oil was the best solubilising oil for both drugs, Tween 80 and Span 20 showed the highest solubilising ability for both the drugs among the surfactants; therefore, they were chosen as surfactant and co-surfactant, respectively. The optimum self-nanoemulsifying formulations showed a particle size for fusidic acid and Sodium fusidate of 140.58 nm and 151.86 nm respectively, and both showed a low PDI below 0.3. After incorporating both drug SNEDDS formulations with Carbopol at different concentrations, the results of the drugs particle size and PDI showed no significant difference. The zeta potential results for both drugs nanoemulgels showed a negative potential with more than 30 mV. All nanoemulgel formulations showed pseudo-plastic behaviour with the highest release pattern at 0.4% Carbopol. The antibacterial activity of both drug nanoemulgel formulations showed superiority over the market product.Conclusion: Nanoemulgel is a promising delivery system for FA and SF that helps in improving the stability and antibacterial activities of the drugs.Keywords: fusidic acid, sodium fusidate, nanoemulgel, pine oil, antibacterial activity

The present study aims to study the effect of low viscous biofuel, namely pine oil (PO) and orange oil (O) blending with Jatropha methyl ester (JOME) along with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on NO-smoke tradeoff in a single-compression ignition (CI) engine. Two blends of pine oil and orange oil (30% by volume) with JOME were prepared and tested at 10%, 15%, and 20% EGR rates for various load conditions and compared with base fuels. JOME operation increased NO emission by 4% and reduced smoke opacity by 10% in comparison to diesel at maximum load condition. Poor physical properties of JOME, namely high viscosity and inferior volatility leads to reduced brake thermal efficiency with higher HC and CO emissions. Blends of JOME with low viscous biofuel reduces smoke emission with a further increase in NO emission in comparison to JOME as a result of combustion enhancement. Addition of EGR with JOME70 + PO30 and JOME70 + O30 aids in the reduction of NO emission with a slight increase in smoke opacity. Considering the NO-smoke tradeoff, JOME70 + O30 + EGR (10%) is optimum, NO emission is reduced by 14% and 11% in comparison to JOME and diesel and smoke opacity is reduced by 5% and 15% in comparison to JOME and diesel at maximum load, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study to improve the characteristics in terms of performance, emission and combustion aspects without any modification to a direct injection compression ignition engine using pine oil blend and additive addition was executed. Biofuels known for their reduction in emission also degrades the engine's performance value. To overcome this, pine oil mixture was used with an additive (1,4-dioxane). Pine oil taken at two different concentrations (P20, P40) and the additive at two varying proportions (5 ml, 10 ml) were utilized. In total, six pine oil mixtures were prepared and analyzed for the emission, performance and combustion aspects of the test engine and compared with diesel values. The result evidenced the rise of 3.88% and 5.57% for brake thermal efficiency and fuel consumption, respectively, for P20-10 ml blend compared with diesel. Contemplating the emission aspects, considerable decrease in pollutants (22.41% CO, 29.19% HC and 22.80% smoke) excluding NOx and CO2 at peak load conditions was depicted. NOx and CO2 increase about 7.23% and 25.41%, respectively. Combustion parameters like heat release rate and peak pressure of pine oil mixture exhibited inferior values compared with diesel. Only P20 blend with 10 ml additive exhibited values very close (a drop of 2.8% HRR and 2.4% CP) to that of diesel value. To conclude, out of half-dozen blends when compared with diesel, P20 with 10 ml additive proves as the best blend, providing much capable outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work has developed and evaluated a microemulsion-based drilling fluid formulation with characteristics to be applied in oil wells. The microemulsion was formulated with a solution of water/glycerol, pine oil, and Tween 80, a nonionic and biodegradable surfactant. The physical and chemical properties of the drilling fluid obtained in this work were investigated through rheology and filtration analysis, solids content, aging, lubricity, toxicity, and thermal degradation. A non-toxic microemulsion-based drilling fluid oil-in-water (O/W) with high lubricity (0.07638) and thermal stability was obtained with suitable viscosity, gel strength and low fluid loss (4.0 mL), low solids content (6%), stability in a wide range of salinity conditions, and the possibility of high water content (above 85% in mass fraction). The fluid presented a pseudoplastic behavior, and statistically significant Herschel–Bulkley parameters were obtained.

In the present study, a high-viscous biofuel, namely wheat germ oil (WGO), and a low-viscous biofuel, namely pine oil (PO), are used in a twin-cylinder diesel engine. The fuel ionization filter is fitted with a permanent magnet, an electromagnet, and the combination of permanent magnet and electromagnet, and their effect on the engine performance, emission, and combustion is studied. A fuel ionization filter placed in the fuel line, before the injection pump, ionizes the fuel molecules and increases the rate of disintegration of droplets due to a decrease in viscosity and surface tension. The tests are performed at a constant engine speed of 1500 rpm with loads varying from no load to full load at intervals of 25%. As compared to diesel, the engine operation with ionization filter increased brake thermal efficiency and reduced the fuel consumption for both PO and WGO. The increase in brake thermal efficiency is in the order: permanent magnet, electromagnet, and combination of electromagnet and permanent magnet. The magnetic field strength of electromagnet is higher than permanent magnet which tends to increase the ionization of the fuel. When both the magnets are combined, the magnetic field strength further increases resulting in more ionization of the fuel. It is also perceived that magnetic effect reduces the viscosity of the fuel. Regulated emissions, namely unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and smoke emissions, reduced, whereas NOx emissions increased with WGO and ionization filter. With pine oil and ionization filter, all the regulated emissions decreased as compared to neat pine oil. The reduction in HC, CO, and smoke emissions was highest for combination of electromagnet and permanent magnet followed by electromagnet and permanent magnet. The study shows that combination of permanent magnet and electromagnet resulted in the best engine performance and emission characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Effects of pilot injection strategies and pine oil/diesel blends were analyzed. • Introducing pilot injection strategies could increase thermal efficiency. • Addition of pine oil to diesel reduced soot and CO at the expense of NO X and THC. • Small pilot main-interval reduced the energy losses of THC, CO and friction. • Small PMI coupled with 20% pine oil improved BTE and reduced soot-NO X emissions. Pine oil is mainly produced from the pine tree, which has some prominent fuel-related properties, such as lower boiling point and viscosity than those of the pure diesel. Particularly, its low heating value is similar to that of diesel. In addition, pine oil and diesel can be mixed in any ratio, and the engine can directly burn the pine oil/diesel mixtures without any further modification. Therefore, pine oil is considered to be a promising additive to diesel fuel. However, when pine oil is fueled in a diesel engine via single injection the engine NO X emissions deteriorate. In this present study, the effects of pilot injection (PI) strategies, including pilot injection rate (PIR) and pilot-main interval (PMI) on energy distribution, emissions and combustion were explored in a diesel engine fueling with diesel/pine oil mixtures at low-load condition. Three test fuels were pure diesel (denoted as P0), a mixture of 80% diesel and 20% pine oil (denoted as P20), and 60% diesel and 40% pine oil (denoted as P40), respectively. The results showed that, after utilizing the PI strategies, the peaks of in-cylinder pressure of the three fuels increased compared to single injection, while the maximum pressure rise rates decreased along with an increase in the break thermal efficiency (BTE). After blending pine oil in pure diesel, both the soot and CO emissions were reduced, although the NO X and THC emissions slightly increased. The small PMI strategies could reduce the energy loss of THC, CO emissions and friction, and improve BTE. However, the soot emission increased. At low-load condition, when fueling with P20 blended fuel and using small PMI strategies, the system could achieve higher thermal efficiency and lower soot-NO X emissions than the strategy employing pure diesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the effect of epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) on the thermomechanical properties of foams based on epoxidized pine oil (EPO) was investigated. To obtain homogeneity in microstructure, an in-house developed, delayed addition approach was adopted for foaming compositions with polymethylhydrosiloxane (PMHS) while varying ESO content from 10% to 50%. The resulting foams were characterized with respect to microstructure, mechanical and thermal properties. The influence of rheology of blend compositions before gelation on the cell morphology was examined and a prospective approach was proposed for optimality in cell size. Although pure ESO did not cure at room temperature, blending with EPO facilitated processing the foams at room temperature, thereby curtailing the overall energy input in commercially manufacturing such composite systems. The behavior of foams under compressive loading was studied, and the compressive strength was observed to exhibit a decrease from 5.24 to 1.13 MPa with increase in ESO content. The nature of collapse plateau however suggested an increase in the fraction of load supported by the fluid in this region. This juxtaposed with a decrease in foam density deviated from Rehkopf's evaluation of load distribution between polymer and fluid. The foams were shown to exhibit high thermal stability, which increased from 182 to 208 °C with the amount of ESO present in the matrix. Image 1 • Demonstrated a room-temperature curing of ESO. • Hypothesized in-situ energy harvesting for curing of ESO. • Synthesized foams deviated from well-known load distribution theories. • The blend foams yielded better traits of their parent resins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies have been carried out for analyzing the flotation performance of chalcopyrite ore from Rakha mines, Jharkhand. The full factorial methodology has been used for design of experiments. The reagents (collector and frother) dosages and time were independent variables and recovery and grade has been considered as responses. The minimum and maximum values of operating conditions were chosen after performing preliminary experiments at different operating conditions. The effect of the variables (species interaction - main and interactional) on recovery and grade were studied. In this work, the experimental data were compared to data obtained from the factorial design of experiments to check the validation of model. The results obtained for bulk were analyzed to calculate the optimized condition for effective recovery and grade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study presented an inclusive analysis of engine exhaust emission characteristics of direct injection diesel engine fuelled with diesel and biofuel. Biofuel used in this investigation was obtained by steam distillation from pine oil. A single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine was used for this purpose. In this work, performance characteristics like brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) were analysed. The engine pollutants, namely nitrogen oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), and smoke, were examined. In addition, combustion characteristics like in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate were presented. Two engine modification techniques, namely thermal barrier coating and the addition of antioxidant to biofuel, were attempted. The advantage of thermal barrier coating is to reduce heat loss from the engine and convert the accumulated heat into useful piston work. In this work, partially stabilised zirconia was used as the coating material. The usage of antioxidant-treated biofuel in a diesel engine was said to be the prominent approach for NOx emission reduction. Three different antioxidants, namely butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), tertiary-butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ), were exclusively dissolved at a concentration of 1% by volume with PO fuel. The obtained performance and emission characteristics of the uncoated engine were compared with the thermally coated engine. From the results, it was observed that the PO biofuel may be a promising alternative in the near prospect with the thermal barrier coating technique to enhance the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of diesel engine. The PO+TBHQ blend was considered as more beneficial than PO+BHT and PO+BHA on account of its performance, combustion and emission characteristics. The effectiveness of the antioxidant was shown in the order of TBHQ>BHA>BHT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, neat castor oil having a high viscosity of 226.2 cSt is taken as a base fuel replacing diesel in a CI engine. To improve the combustion characteristics of NCO, various methods like transesterification, blending with diesel and blending with low viscous biofuel namely pine oil (P) were adopted. Pine oil has viscosity of 1.3 cSt, which is only about 1/3rd compared to diesel fuel. On the contrary, low cetane number of pine oil limits its share ratio (30% by volume) due to engine knocking problems. The merits and demerits of the properties of castor oil and pine oil are mutually balanced causing a NO-smoke tradeoff. For comparison purpose, diesel was blended 30% by volume with NCO. All the tests were done in a single cylinder CI engine with rated power of 5.2 kW at 1500 rpm. Diesel, neat castor oil (NCO), castor oil methyl ester (COME), NCO70 + P30 and NCO70 + D30 were tested to assess the comparative performance, emission and combustion characteristics at different load conditions. NO emission for diesel is 8.2 g/kWh and for NCO and COME it is 5.2 g/kWh and 8.99 g/kWh respectively. The smoke opacity is 57% for diesel and it exceeds 100% for NCO at full load whereas it is 69% for COME. NCO70 + P30 blend increases NO emission to 7.1 g/kWh and reduces smoke opacity to 85% compared to neat castor oil. Very low viscosity and better volatility of pine oil, blending it with NCO improves brake thermal efficiency from 23.73% to 29.07% whereas it is 29.73% and 32.93% for COME and diesel operations respectively. While, COME exhibited better combustion compared to other techniques, considering NO-smoke tradeoff and laborious tranesterification process, NCO70 + P30 is considered optimum since the performance, combustion and emission characteristics approach closer to COME operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this experimental study, pine oil is identified as low viscous low cetane (LVLC) fuel for compression ignition engine replacing diesel. Numerous advantages of LVLC fuels include improved combustion due to favorable physical properties than diesel. This leads to reduced hydrocarbon, smoke and carbon monoxide emissions with improved thermal efficiency. However, utilization of pine oil as a drop in fuel is challenging, due to its low cetane index. This leads to higher nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission due to prominent heat release rate. A novel fuel reforming system based on the principle of electrochemical liquid vortex ionization was used with permanent magnet/electromagnet to reduce NOx emission with pine oil as base fuel. Electrochemical liquid vortex ionization system converts the fuel molecules to ions; this leads to enhanced atomization and faster air–fuel mixing process leading to lower ignition delay. A two-cylinder commercial CI engine was used for this experimental study. Performance, emission and combustion characteristics were studied for pine oil with and without ionization system at 3, 6, 9 and 12 kW power output and compared with diesel. According to engine test results, compared to diesel, brake thermal efficiency for pine oil is higher and further improved with ionization system. Emissions like smoke, hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are reduced for pine oil in comparison with diesel and further reduce with the ionization system. Longer ignition delay with pine oil operation leads to higher NOx emission compared to diesel. Nevertheless, the use of magnetic-based fuel reforming system reduces the ignition delay leading to lower NOx emission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The present study aims to explore the effect of fuel ionisation on engine performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a twin cylinder compression ignition (CI) engine running on biofuel. Wheat germ oil (WGO) and pine oil (PO) have been identified as diesel fuel surrogates with high and low viscosities, respectively. High viscosity biofuels result in incomplete combustion due to poor atomisation and evaporation which ultimately leads to insufficient air-fuel mixing to form a combustible mixture. Consequently, engines running on this type of fuel suffer from lower brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and higher soot emission. In contrast, low viscosity biofuels exhibit superior combustion characteristics however they have a low cetane number which causes longer ignition delay and therefore higher NO emission. To overcome the limitations of both fuels, a fuel ionisation filter (FIF) with a permanent magnet is installed upstream of the fuel pump which electrochemically ionises the fuel molecules and aids in quick dispersion of the ions. The engine used in this investigation is a twin cylinder tractor engine that runs at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. The engine was initially run on diesel to warm-up before switching to WGO and PO, this was mainly due to poor cold start performance characteristics of both fuels. At 100% load, BTE for WGO is reduced by 4% compared to diesel and improved by 7% with FIF. In contrast, BTE for PO is 4% higher compared to diesel, however, FIF has minimal effect on BTE when running on PO. Although, smoke, HC and CO emissions were higher for WGO compared to diesel, they were lower with FIF due to improved combustion. These emissions were consistently lower for PO due to superior combustion performance, mainly attributed to low viscosity of the fuel. However, NO emission for PO (1610 ppm) is higher compared to diesel (1580 ppm) at 100% load and reduced with FIF (1415 ppm). NO emission is reduced by approximately 12% for PO + FIF compared to PO. The results suggest that FIF has the potential to improve diesel combustion performance and reduce NO emission produced by CI engines running on high and low viscosity biofuels, respectively. Highlights • Wheat germ oil and pine oil were identified as diesel fuel surrogates with high and low viscosities, respectively. • The biofuels were tested at different load conditions in a Simpson S217 twin cylinder CI tractor engine. • Fuel ionisation method was adopted to overcome the challenges associated with the combustion of WGO and PO in CI engines. • Fuel ionisation method can be retrofitted to existing vehicles to tackle the operational limitations of high and low viscosity biofuels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the increase in vehicle density, the amount of pollution along with the dependence on the diesel fuel also increases, which might be on the verge of depletion. The increase in fuel price is an important economical factor. Hence, finding a suitable substitute energy source which is economic and also meets the energy necessity is of great need. During this study, the utilization of pine oil biofuel in which rice husk (RH) nanoparticles was added as an additive was proposed. The test was carried out in a single cylinder, diesel engine at 1500 rpm. Fuel is blended at two ratios (B10, B20) and 0.1% of RH nano-additive is added with each blend and their characteristics in terms of performance and emission are analyzed for varied load conditions. At full load condition for B10-0.1% RH, there is a slight reduction of about 3.04% for BTE and 4.1% increase in BSFC than diesel fuel was observed. Likewise, for B20-0.1% RH at full load condition CO and HC decreases about 27.27% and 19.64% respectively, with a rise in CO2 and a slight increase of NOx level at 15.63%, 8.76% respectively than diesel fuel. This small replacement of diesel fuel by biodiesel helps in reducing the increasing cost and also the complete dependency on the fossil-based fuel. Thus, pine oil with additive can perform well without any engine modifications and helps in reducing the pollutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pine oil, commonly used as a flotation frother, could affect the bioleaching process. The attachment and biofilm development of acidophiles on metal sulfides were essential for bioleaching. This study focused on the role of pine oil in the early adhesion and biofilm development by Acidianus manzaensis YN-25 on the chalcopyrite surface. It was revealed that pine oil had a negative effect on the adhesion amount of A. manzaensis on the chalcopyrite surface. After having reached adhesion equilibrium, the percentage of attached cells decreased as the concentration of pine oil increased. The addition of pine oil was found to decrease the negative charge of chalcopyrite and cells, resulting in a higher attraction of acid-base interaction energy and total interaction force. This ultimately led to a stronger adhesion force between chalcopyrite and A. manzaensis. While the addition of pine oil initially delayed the formation of cell microcolonies during the first stage of biofilm formation, which ultimately resulted in larger biofilm coverage compared with the control group. The microcolonies on the mineral surface were also larger and the corrosion pits were bigger with the addition of pine oil. Furthermore, the addition of pine oil weakened the passivation effect and promoted the biological dissolution of chalcopyrite. This study offers a better understanding of the effect of pine oil on the bioleaching of chalcopyrite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is growing consideration among farmers and researchers regarding the development of natural herbicides providing sufficient levels of weed control. The aim of the present study was to compare the efficacy of four different pelargonic acid products, three essential oils and two natural products’ mixtures against L. rigidum Gaud., A. sterilis L. and G. aparine L. Regarding grass weeds, it was noticed at 7 days after treatment that PA3 treatment (pelargonic acid 3.102% w/v + maleic hydrazide 0.459% w/v) was the least efficient treatment against L. rigidum and A. sterilis. The mixture of lemongrass oil and pelargonic acid resulted in 77% lower dry weight for L. rigidum in comparison to the control. Biomass reduction reached the level of 90% as compared to the control in the case of manuka oil and the efficacy of manuka oil and pelargonic acid mixture was similar. For sterile oat, weed biomass was recorded between 31% and 33% of the control for lemongrass oil, pine oil, PA1 (pelargonic acid 18.67% + maleic hydrazide 3%) and PA4 (pelargonic acid 18.67%) treatments. In addition, the mixture of manuka oil and pelargonic acid reduced weed biomass by 96% as compared to the control. Regarding the broadleaf species G. aparine, PA4 and PA1 treatments provided a 96–97% dry weight reduction compared to the corresponding value recorded for the untreated plants. PA2 (pelargonic acid 50% w/v) treatment and the mixture of manuka oil and pelargonic acid completely eliminated cleaver plants. The observations made for weed dry weight on the species level were similar to those made regarding plant height values recorded for each species. Further research is needed to study more natural substances and optimize the use of natural herbicides as well as natural herbicides’ mixtures in weed management strategies under different soil and climatic conditions.

This work focuses on developing nanoemulsions using a low-energy emulsification method for the codelivery of donepezil and memantine in one dosage form intended to be administered via the intranasal route for enhanced brain delivery. The nanoemulsion formulation was prepared using a low emulsification technique and characterized using various microscopy and nasal ciliotoxicity studies. The safe nanoemulsion was intended for preclinical pharmacokinetics with brain distribution and pharmacodynamics in a scopolamine-induced murine model. The formulated nanoemulsion was 16 nm in size, with a zeta potential of -7.22 mV, and exhibited a spherical shape. The brain concentration of IN-administered NE for DPZ and MEM was ∼678 and 249 ng/mL after 15 min. This concentration is more than 2 times higher in amount when compared with NE administered via PO, free drug solution administered via IN and PO route both. However, the plasma concentration of IN-administered NE for DPZ and MEM was ∼3 and 28 ng/mL after 15 min. In pharmacodynamic studies, the efficacy of NE administered via the IN route was higher when compared with other groups in neurobehavioral, biochemical estimation, and gene expression studies. The results suggest that the IN route can be explored in the future for the delivery of actives via nanocolloidal carriers in the brain for neurological disorders and can serve as promising alternatives for conventional dosage forms and routes.

Across many southern regions of Australia, native grasslands have become seriously threatened by human activity, with only a fraction of the original areas remaining undisturbed. In particular, the introduction and establishment of exotic invasive weeds has caused significant degradation to the ecosystems in these areas by contributing to a decrease in native plant density and diversity, and this has ultimately led to major changes to the ecosystem structure and function. One such example is Galenia pubescens. Our objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of four different attempts to control G. pubescens: herbicide control with glyphosate; organic herbicide control with pine oil; the application of mulch; and the addition of seeds of native species to the seedbank. Results shows that any one single control strategy is insufficient to control G. pubescens, and, in addition, it has shown that regeneration of native vegetation is limited unless direct seeding is applied. There was a strong indication that a combined strategy employing more than two of the aforementioned techniques is likely to be the most effective approach, at least in the short term. Underscoring the complexity of this task, our analysis on foliage cover of G. pubescens shows that the interaction of pine oil and glyphosate treatments appeared to be very effective after six months, but were not so effective after 18 months. By contrast, seeding with native seeds was not particularly effective at six months, but its longer-term contribution appears to be effective at 18 months. Further, our results obtained from the seedbank abundance study indicate that time alone was not a significant factor in restoration of the grasslands (p = 0.165); however there were interactions with time, shown by time*glyphosate (p = 0.008) and time*seeding (p = 0.016). Both interactions indicated that the applications of glyphosate and seeding were more beneficial after 18 months compared to six months. However, full regeneration of invaded native grasslands may not be possible unless further restoration programs are re-implemented after the first cycle of G. pubescens’ treatments have been completed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fuel spray performance and atomization quality played a fundamental role in optimization of combustion efficiency and exhaust emissions in internal combustion engines. In order to achieve better atomizing mode of diesel, the spray characteristics of diesel blending pine oil and PODE3-4 were experimental studied. A spray trial platform include the visual constant volume chamber and the high-pressure common rail test bench. The high-speed photograph technique was applied to systematically investigate the spray process of blended fuel. To be specific, this study was conducted under the diesel mixed with 20% pine oil, and 10% or 20% PODE3-4 was then added based on the mixture of diesel and 20% pine oil. Then, the influences of injection pressure, nozzle diameter and fuel property on macroscopic spray parameters (including spray cone angle, spray penetration distance and fuel flow area) were investigated in detail. It can be observed from the experimental research results that, at first, the spray penetration distance of blended fuel presented a certain degree of linear growth with the fuel injection, and then the increasing rate of the penetration distance decreased. On the other hand, it was observed that the spray cone angle was wider at the beginning of the spray development, and it gradually converged to a smaller and constant value. In general, the variation of the spray cone angle is stabilized during spray process. The decrease of spray penetration velocity is faster in the early stage, and the decrease is slow in the middle and late period and the fluctuation is produced. For the same nozzle diameter (10 mm), the blended fuel had a longer penetration distance with the increasing of the fuel injection pressure from 100 to 160 MPa. And the effect of injection pressure on the spray cone angle according to the variation in injection pressure showed that the spray cone angle at 160 MPa injection pressure was larger than that at 100 MPa. When increasing the penetration distance by 13% from 100 to 160 MPa, for each increase of 20 MPa, the spray cone angle increases averagely by 1°. The initial spray penetration velocity increases with the increase of the injection pressure, but the final spray penetration velocity is not very different. If increasing the injection pressure, the fuel area will also increase, and therefore, increasing the injection pressure can improve the spray characteristics of the fuel and improve the utilization rate of the air. When the nozzle diameter increased from 10 to 18 mm at the same injection pressure (160 MPa), the increment of nozzle diameter led to obvious increase of the spray cone angle and the penetration distance. During the spray evolution process, the mean spray cone angle increased by about 3°. The spray penetration distance increased by about 28% at the end of the injection. The spray penetration velocity of the large nozzle diameter is always greater than that of the small nozzle diameter. The fuel area increases with the increase of the nozzle diameter. However, excessive nozzle diameter will result in an increase in the amount of fuel injection, and it is not conducive to the broken atomization of fuel. In addition, analyses showed that the spray penetration distance, spray cone angle and fuel area increased slightly after a certain proportion of pine oil and PODE3-4 were blended into diesel, which was very conducive to improve air and fuel mixture effect with pine oil. It can be concluded that investigating the spray characteristics of diesel - pine oil- PODE3-4 blend would be significantly beneficial for enhancing the atomization quality of pure diesel, and also provide a valuable reference on the spray characteristics to choose an acceptable and appropriate alternative fuel for common rail diesel engine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the environmental aging of two types of bio‐resin carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) through immersion in saltwater at various temperatures, and compares results to conventional epoxy (E)‐CFRP. The two types are: a fully bio‐resin, namely furfural alcohol (FA), derived from corn‐cobs and sugarcane, and the second is a partial bio‐resin, namely epoxidized pine oil blend (EP) extracted from pine tree sap. Control specimens showed that EP resin resulted in similar CFRP strength and modulus to E resin, whereas FA resin resulted in a 9% lower strength and 14% higher modulus. These were shown by the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to be statistically insignificant. After 240 days exposure, tensile strength retentions of EP‐CFRP at 23°C, 40°C, and 50°C were 97%, 98%, and 92%, respectively, while those of FA‐CFRP were 83%, 81%, and 82%. For reference, retentions of E‐CFRP were 101%, 90%, and 95%. ANOVA showed that the differences in retentions between EP‐ and E‐CFRP are statistically insignificant at all temperatures, while the differences between FA‐ and E‐CFRP are significant at 23°C and 50°C after 240 days only. Also, the reductions in strength over the 240 days for each resin type are insignificant, except for FA‐CFRP at 50°C. CFRP generally suffered remarkably less deterioration than glass‐FRP at elevated temperatures, for both E and FA resins. POLYM. COMPOS., 39:2081–2092, 2018. © 2016 Society of Plastics Engineers [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the experimental investigation of palm oil produced by the transesterification process and glycerin as a by-product. Palm oil methyl ester blends with diesel blends were used in a compression ignition (diesel) engines to analyze the emission characteristics. Experimental results show that palm methyl ester blends meet the emission and performance requirements of a diesel engine. These blends provide less concentration of exhaust gas emissions. However, apart from its advantages, it produces low HC, CO and higher NOx exhaust gas emissions as compared to diesel fuel. Thus, palm oil methyl ester can be considered as an alternative source of renewable energy to meet the energy demands of the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industrial terpineol is commonly manufactured from more readily available turpentine or α-pinene rather than extracting from natural plants or woods. The product of the synthesis results in a dark-color liquid that could reduce the price and limit the use of the product itself. Finding a suitable solid adsorbent that is able to adsorb the impurities could be a better way to solve the problem rather than using energy-demanding process, such as stage-wise distillation. In this study, four different solid adsorbents were tried to decolorize the dark color of synthesized terpineol from α-pinen. Bentonite shows a very promising result as it could alter the color of the liquid into light yellow. Compared to other adsorbents, bentonite performed better at the same particle size and solid loading. The decolorization performance was also influenced significantly by the size of the solid adsorbent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BIPEA () organizes regular proficiency-testing schemes (PTS) in many analytical domains, including the analysis of essential oils. As an example, in September and October 2015, two tests were conducted using essential pine oil, with respectively 27 and 32 participating laboratories. The first test was intended for routine quality-control analyses (density, refractive index optical rotation, flash-point, peroxide value, and acid value), whereas the second was intended for the analysis of the composition of this essential oil, by determination of its profile by gas chromatography with flame-ionization detection (for 22 constituents of this particular essential oil). Participating laboratories were required to return their results on a dedicated website within a period of 1 month, and a statistical treatment of the data was as usually performed by BIPEA according to ISO 13528.1. Assigned (consensus) values were calculated from the participants' results, and the performances of the laboratories could then be evaluated individually and collectively according to ISO 17043. 2 These tests allow participating laboratories to draw up a general inventory of their analytical skills, and are a very useful tool to detect bias or non-compliant results; they act as a warning signal for the implementation of corrective and/or curative actions in the laboratory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) is an effective method for bio-oil upgrading. However, the high hydrogen consumption resulted in high bio-oil upgrading cost. In this study, an novel method of hydrogen generation from water for bio-oil HDO was reported. Zinc metal with zero valency was used to generate hydrogen through zinc hydrolysis reaction in the bio-oil HDO process. The effects of different temperatures (20 °C, 250 °C, 300 °C, 350 °C, 400 °C) on in situ bio-oil HDO was investigated. The results showed that high temperatures resulted in high hydrogen yield that led to promoted HDO activity over zinc metal-based materials. Although 20 °C bio-oil HDO process generated the highest oil phase yield at 14.07%, 400 °C bio-oil upgrading process produced upgraded bio-oil with highest hydrocarbons content at 68.95%. Physicochemical properties of raw bio-oil improved significantly after bio-oil HDO upgrading at higher temperatures (250 °C, 300 °C, 350 °C and 400 °C). The pH of upgraded bio-oils (5.70–6.49) increased significantly compared to raw bio-oil (3.24). The higher heating value of upgraded bio-oils (28.67–33.43 MJ/kg) increased significantly compared to raw bio-oil (15.54 MJ/kg), and valuable hydrocarbons content improved significantly from 16.94% in raw bio-oil to 37.86%–68.95% in upgraded bio-oils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bond strength durability of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) to concrete is investigated for two bio-based resins and compared with conventional epoxy (E). The first is an epoxidized pine oil blend (EP) and was used for wet layup installation. The second is a furfuryl alcohol resin derived from corn cobs and sugar cane (FA), and was used to prefabricate CFRP plates, which were installed using an epoxy paste. A total of 137 concrete prisms with a midspan half-depth saw cut were tested. Specimens were conditioned in a 3.5% saline solution at 23, 40, or 50°C for up to 240 days before testing for bond strength. Short-term bond strengths were 3.9, 4.3, and 5.5 MPa for the E, EP, and FA resins, respectively, using a 33 MPa concrete. Reductions in bond strength over the 240 days of conditioning did not exceed 15%. Bond failures of E-CFRP (EC) and EP-CFRP (EPC) were predominantly adhesive-based, where a thin layer of cement paste remained attached to CFRP, while that of FA-CFRP (FAC) was cohesive-based, where there was a thicker layer of concrete remaining on the CFRP. This suggests that bond between the furfuryl alcohol resin and epoxy paste is excellent and remained intact. ANOVA showed that the difference between EPC and EC strengths were insignificant, while that between FAC and EC were statistically significant. Only FAC at 40°C after 240 days showed a statistically significant difference from its unconditioned counterpart. Finally, the 40 and 50°C conditioning was not statistically different from the 23°C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interaction between pine oil and marmatite without collectors and activators was investigated by flotation, scanning electron microscope and energy-dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS), infrared (IR) spectroscopy, Zeta potential, and first-principle theory calculations. The flotation results show that marmatite exhibits considerable floatability with the addition of pine oil. SEM-EDS results show that carbon atomic ratios on the surface are significantly high, which suggests that the flotation of marmatite is caused by the adsorption of pine oil. Further evidence of the adsorption mechanism was given by IR, and Zeta potential examining pine oil depends on the physical adsorption on the surface independently. The first-principle theory calculations indicate that pine oil molecule adsorbs on Zn and Fe atom surfaces by ionic bond and covalent bond of adsorption energies of −1.23 and −1.51 eV, respectively. P orbital of O atom, s orbital of Zn atom, and d orbital of Fe are the major participants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Premixed charge compression ignition mode of operation. • Premixing of benzyl alcohol and DEE by 10 % and 20 % respectively. • Use of pine oil blend (P50) with diesel in 50 % • Performance, emissions and combustion characteristics analysis. This article examines the effect of premixing of benzyl alcohol and Diethyl Ether (DEE) in a CI engine fuelled with pine oil diesel fuel blend. The fuel sample is prepared by blending 50% of pine oil with 50% of diesel fuel (P50) on volume basics. The benzyl alcohol and diethyl ether were injected in the premixing ratio of 10% and 20% on the CI engine fuelled with P50. The experimental analysis was conducted in a 4-stroke single cylinder CI engine with added provision to operate on PCCI mode. The engine was operated with constant speed and tested at different torque condition ranging from 0 to 100 % in the interval of 25%. The experiment results shows that premixing of benzyl alcohol and diethyl ether enhanced the brake thermal efficiency by 4.5 % and 8.75 % than P50 respectively and brake specific energy consumptions was low when compared to neat P50 operation. Premixing of diethyl ether and benzyl alcohol increased the emission of CO and HC whereas reduced smoke and NO x emission. There was increase in peak combustion pressure and heat release rate with the premixing of benzyl alcohol however, premixing of diethyl ether resulted in reverse trend. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pine oil has a high calorific value, which makes it an appropriate biofuel for diesel engines. In this paper, spray characteristics such as spray morphology, spray penetration and spray cone angle of pine oil-diesel blends were investigated under various injection pressures using a constant volume spray chamber. The effects of the injection pressure on the combustion and emission characteristics of pine oil-diesel blends were experimentally investigated in a four-cylinder diesel engine under medium EGR (24.6%). Four different fuels including pure diesel (P0), three blends of pine oil and diesel fuel denoted as P20 (20% pine oil and 80% diesel in volume), P40 (40% pine oil and 60% diesel in volume), and P50 (50% pine oil and 50% diesel in volume) were tested. Our results indicate that, as the injection pressure increases, the spray penetration of blended fuels increase, while the spray cone angle shows slightly change. And with the increasing of injection pressure, the peak values of heat release rate and in-cylinder pressure during the combustion of the four blended fuels increase, the BSFC slightly increase, the emissions of soot, CO and THC decrease, however NOx emissions increase. The effects of the increase of injection pressure on soot emissions of pure diesel are greater than that of blended fuels. When the mixing ratio of pine oil exceeds 40%, the beneficial effects of injection pressure on soot emissions from the combustion of blended fuels are weakened. At the same injection pressure, the BSFC of P20 almost equals the value of P0. As the mixing ratio of pine oil increases, the spray penetration and the spray cone angle of blended fuels increase, which enhanced the atomization process and fuel evaporation. With the increase ratio of pine oil, the peak values of in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate increase, the emissions of NOx, CO and THC increase and soot emissions decrease dramatically. For the combustion of the tested fuels, the number concentration and mass concentration of total PMs can be reduced by increasing the injection pressure or the amount of pine oil in the blends. At an injection pressure of 100 MPa, the total PM number concentration and mass concentration of P50 are respectively lower 86.30% and 96.55% than the values for pure diesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]