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The article discusses a unique adaptation observed in the larvae of the Taiwanese tree frog Kurixalus eiffingeri. The larvae, which live in small water pools on plants, do not seem to defecate until metamorphosis. This behavior is hypothesized to be a sanitation strategy to avoid ammonia contamination in their closed aquatic environment. The study demonstrates reduced ammonia excretion and increased ammonia tolerance in K. eiffingeri larvae compared to other pond-living frog larvae. The findings highlight the close relationship between an organism's habitat and its mode of nitrogen excretion. [Extracted from the article]

Only a small proportion of the world's crustacean taxa is adapted to limno-terrestrial microhabitats that are disconnected from conventional surface waterbodies. In rare occasions, water films on terrestrial tropical and subtropical vegetation may also harbour specialised cladocerans. Bryospilus Frey, 1980 (Chydoridae) is the only genus within the class Branchiopoda that is specialised to living almost exclusively in water-saturated terrestrial moss patches, leaf litter, and phytotelms. The remarkable waterflea lineage, which has a suite of highly unusual characters within the family, has been found in terrestrial habitats in rainforests of West Africa, South and Central America, and New Zealand. We discovered a new moss-inhabiting chydorid from western India, Bryospilus (Indobryospilus) bharaticus n. sp. , the first representative of the genus from the Oriental Region. Its morphology and behaviour are highly unusual for a species of Bryospilus. In comparison to its congeners, the new species can swim and it has significantly less oligomerisation, with three terminal setae on the antennal endopod instead of two and seven exopod setae on the third limb instead of six, among other features. We define a new subgenus Indobryospilus nov. and we amend the genus Bryospilus. The new species is a living evolutionary connection, characterised by a phenotype which provides us with new clues about evolutionary transitions in the only terrestrial branchiopod genus. Our results are informative beyond Cladocera, as the morphology of this species provides insights about the evolution and parallelisms of aquatic crustaceans that have specialised in limno-terrestrial habitats. We revisit the morphology of the genus, the disjunct biogeographical pattern with a potential ancient signature, and discuss the functional adaptations of these cladocerans to life on land, as well as convergences with subterranean lineages. A new key to the world species of Bryospilus species is included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An assessment of the phytotelmata as mosquito larval habitats in the Darjeeling hill region, India was carried out from July to September 2021 coinciding with the rainy season. Applying random sampling of the selected sites along the different altitudes from the Darjeeling hills, revealed that at least six different varieties of phytotelmata are available with differences in the habitat features and the mosquito immature productivity. The plants like Musa balbisiana (Banana), Colocasia esculenta (Cocoyam), Arundo donax (Narkat), Pandanus furcatus (Tarika), Neoregelia regia (Bromeliad) were observed to be positive for the mosquitoes along with the bamboo stumps. The groves of four bamboo plants namely, Bambusa nutans (Malabas), Dendrocalamus giganteus, (Bhalubas), Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Choyabas), and Yushania maling (Malingo) were found to be positive for the mosquito larvae. In almost all instances, the dominance of the Aedes mosquitoes was observed with the occasional presence of the chironomid larvae as the dominant insects in the phytotelmata. The phytotelmata types varied with the water content, mosquito larval abundance, and water quality justifying the differences in the mosquito larval habitats. Apparently, the mosquito availability in the Darjeeling Hill region appears to be facilitated by the existence of these diverse phytotelmata as mosquito larval habitats. Interestingly, we also observed altitudinal variations in the pupal productivity irrespective of the phytotelmata types and the differences in the pupal productivity of each of the phytotelmata types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phytotelmata bromeliads provide microhabitats for many organisms and maintain high aquatic diversity within Neotropical forests. However, they are more vulnerable to different environmental stressors that shape community structure. While most studies have been carried out in large rainforests, gaps remain about the bromeliad-dwelling community for the wettest points in the Caatinga domain (Brazilian semiarid region). Here, we investigated the influence of abiotic and temporal variables and bromeliad size on community structure between urban and forest sectors. Between 2014 and 2017, we randomly selected 20 urban and 40 forest bromeliads and compared functional groups of invertebrates for richness, abundance, and diversity. We recorded 41 morphospecies, especially Rotifera (19) and Insecta (13). Urban bromeliads exhibited higher richness of filter-feeder, while forest fragment bromeliads were dominated by predators, shredders, and gatherers. We did not observe differences in community structure regarding bromeliad size. However, the wetter period exhibited higher species richness, and higher diversity was associated with the highest rainfall. This study presents for the first time a list of aquatic microinvertebrate species and the influence of environmental parameters on the community structure associated with bromeliads of Caatinga. We have also expanded the list of species associated with phytotelmata in the Neotropical region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phoresy is likely a commensal interaction, in which a phoront attaches itself to the body of a host for dispersal. Host traits and environmental characteristics may determine phoresy patterns. We examined whether the density of microscopic phoronts on frogs living in the water between the leaves of bromeliads (phytotelma) was determined by the species, richness, size and abundance of anurans (frog hosts). We identified phoronts on the skin of three hylid species (Dendropsophus bromeliaceus, Phyllodytes luteolus, and Ololygon arduoa) associated to bromeliads at eight sites in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. We report the first records of phoretic interaction between these bromeligenous frog hosts with the aquatic invertebrates of bromeliads e.g., Bdelloidea, Copepoda, Acari, and Ostracoda. The size of frog hosts had negative relationship with the abundance of phoronts. However, when the species were analyzed separately, the size of O. arduoa had positive relationship with the abundance of phoronts. The richness of anurans in bromeliads did not influence phoresy in any of the observed variables. Our results showed that host attributes, such as identity, size, and abundance, as well as the density of phoronts in their habitat, influenced the phoresy rates. This implies that not only host attributes, but also those of the phoront need to be considered in phoresy studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cryptic habitats are often overlooked in biodiversity surveys. Phytotelmata, or plant pools, are one type of cryptic habitat that supports diverse fauna in a miniature ecosystem. This study surveys the arthropod community of two types of phytotelmata, bracts and leaf rolls, on a single species, Calathea capitata (Ruiz and Pav.) Lindl. (Zingiberales: Marantaceae), from one Amazon site in Peru. Specimens were collected from eight bracts and eight leaf rolls. A total of 55 arthropods (36 adults, 19 juveniles) were found in both phytotelmata types. In the bract samples were found: spiders (Araneae: Corinnidae), beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae, Erotylidae, Staphylin-dae), flies (Diptera: Limoniidae), a leafhopper nymph (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), and unidentified larvae. In leaf roll samples were found: Leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), an earwig (Dermaptera: Spongiforidae), flies (Diptera: Drosophilidae), and an adult leafhopper (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae). A similar survey of Calathea lutea Schultes in Peru revealed a community dominated by Coleoptera in leaf rolls and Diptera in bracts, with a few Dermaptera and Hymenoptera, but no Araneae or Hemiptera. This study demonstrates that phytotelmata host diverse taxa and serve as a nursery to immature stages thus impacting the life cycles of local fauna, which in turn affect local biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report preliminary evidence of a symbiotic parabasalian protist in the guts of Peruvian mimic poison frog (Ranitomeya imitator) tadpoles. This species has biparental care and egg-feeding of tadpoles, while the related R. variabilis consumes the ancestral detritus diet in their nursery pools. Each species' diet was experimentally switched, in the field and lab. Analyses of gut gene expression revealed elevated expression of proteases in the R. imitator field egg-fed treatment. These digestive proteins came from parabasalians, a group of protists known to form symbiotic relationships with hosts that enhance digestion. Genes that code for these digestive proteins are not present in the R. imitator genome, and phylogenetic analyses indicate that these mRNA sequences are from parabasalians. Bar-coding analyses of the tadpole microbiomes further confirmed this discovery. Our findings indicate the presence of parabasalian symbiotes in the intestines of the R. imitator tadpoles, that may aid the tadpoles in protein/lipid digestion in the context of an egg diet. This may have enabled the exploitation of a key ecological niche, allowing R. imitator to expand into an area with ecologically similar species (e.g., R. variabilis and R. summersi). In turn, this may have enabled a Müllerian mimetic radiation, one of only a few examples of this phenomenon in vertebrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aquatic microcosm of bromeliads provides a unique ecological niche that supports the occurrence of a rare and diverse collection of microalgal species. Taxonomic keys, photomicrographs, and morphological descriptions were used to identify each of the microalgal species. A total of 18 microalgal species were identified from aquatic microcosms of Guzmania lingulata in the gardens of florist wholesalers in Laguna, Philippines. Of these taxa, four species were identified both for Chlorophyceae and Bacillariophyceae, three species for Zygnematophyceae, two species each for Euglenophyceae, Trebouxiophyceae, and Cyanophyceae, and one species for Ulvophyceae. The survey reports an additional nine species (Lepocinclis marssonii, Lepocinclis fusiformis, Encyonema minutum, Volvox aureus, Lacunastrum gracillimum, Crucigeniella crucifera, Acutodesmus dimorphus, Cosmarium garrolense, and Cladophora sp.) as new records of phytotelm microalgae in the global inventory list and 11 new taxa as additional records of microalgae in aquatic microcosms found in Asia. Also, the existence of three rare microalgae, Lepocinclis marssonii Lemmermann, Crucigeniella crucifera (Wolle) Komárek, and Cosmarium garrolense J. Roy & Bisset are taxonomically described as new records in the Philippines. The floristic survey provided new distributional and taxonomic records of microalgae found in aquatic microcosms of Guzmania lingulata in the Philippines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immature Diptera are more diverse and abundant in fresh water than any other insect order. The question arises whether the earliest dipterans, known from the Upper Buntsandstein of Europe (early Anisian, Middle Triassic), already developed in water and whether such mode of life was inherited from the ancestor of the order or if, alternatively, the dipteran larvae were ancestrally terrestrial. Nematoceran immatures have become common and diverse in the Mesozoic fossil record since the Middle Jurassic, but the vast majority of them represent only two culicomorphan families, Chaoboridae and Chironomidae. Earlier records and records of immatures of other families from the Mesozoic are extremely rare. A total of four larvae and about 30 pupae have been described from Anisian assemblages of France and Spain. Among these, one larva clearly belongs to Culicomorpha, the infraorder most closely associated with fresh waters, and one larva to Bibionomorpha, the infraorder most closely associated with terrestrial habitats, while the rest are hard to classify. Nevertheless, most of the pupae are morphologically similar to the semi-aquatic pupae of extant Limoniidae and Ptychopteridae from wet habitats. The oligopneustic respiratory systems of the Anisian larvae and their apparently allochthonous burial also suggest their semi-aquatic development, which appears to have been the ancestral mode of life of Diptera. The absence of dipteran immatures in lacustrine Konservat-Lagerstätten of the Madygen and the Cow Branch Formations (Ladinian–Carnian and Norian, respectively) is explained by the aquatic conditions being unfavorable for insect immatures and invertebrates in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cryptic habitats are often overlooked in biodiversity surveys. Phytotelmata, or plant pools, are one type of cryptic habitat that supports diverse fauna in a miniature ecosystem. This study surveys the arthropod community of two types of phytotelmata, bracts and leaf rolls, on a single species, Calathea capitata (Ruiz and Pav.) Lindl. (Zingiberales: Marantaceae), from one Amazon site in Peru. Specimens were collected from eight bracts and eight leaf rolls. A total of 55 arthropods (36 adults, 19 juveniles) were found in both phytotelmata types. In the bract samples were found: spiders (Araneae: Corinnidae), beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae, Erotylidae, Staphylindae), flies (Diptera: Limoniidae), a leafhopper nymph (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), and unidentified larvae. In leaf roll samples were found: Leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), an earwig (Dermaptera: Spongiforidae), flies (Diptera: Drosophilidae), and an adult leafhopper (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae). A similar survey of Calathea lutea Schultes in Peru revealed a community dominated by Coleoptera in leaf rolls and Diptera in bracts, with a few Dermaptera and Hymenoptera, but no Araneae or Hemiptera. This study demonstrates that phytotelmata host diverse taxa and serve as a nursery to immature stages thus impacting the life cycles of local fauna, which in turn affect local biodiversity.

The reproductive biology of Taiwanese arboreal frogs of the genus Kurixalus shows a distinct tendency towards arboreality or terrestriality. Four species breed in phytotelmata and feed the tadpoles with unfertilized eggs; one species has terrestrial eggs and its tadpoles develop in lentic water. Here we provide additional information on habitats, breeding biology and oviposition sites of K. berylliniris, K. cf. eiffingeri and K. idiootocus obtained in northern and southeastern Taiwan. Kurixalus berylliniris prefers tree trunk holes and considers the size of the cavity opening, rather than the height of the opening above the ground. Kurixalus cf. eiffingeri appears to be an adaptable species that reproduces in a wide spectrum of natural and artificial waterfilled cavities. Epiphytic plants do not play a significant role in the reproduction of these species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Vector-borne diseases are prevalent in the Amazon and Coastal regions of Ecuador. However, there is a scarcity of mosquito ecology studies in these areas. The most recent list of species reported for the country comprises 8 tribes, 22 genera, and 200 species. Objectives: To document the Culicidae species found in La Isla Amazon Park, Napo, Ecuador, including those with epidemiological significance; and to analyze their composition, abundance, and diversity, focusing on larval habitats during the dry and rainy periods. Methods: We evaluated different larval habitats, considering collection duration as the primary criterion. We used CDC and Shannon traps to collect adult mosquitoes during both rainy and dry periods. To assess sampling effort, we used accumulation curves and non-parametric estimators of species richness, while we employed Hill numbers to determine diversity. Additionally, we used the Berger-Parker and Pielou indices to evaluate species dominance and evenness. We conducted cluster analysis and ANOSIM tests to assess the similarity between habitats and the differences in taxonomic composition between periods. Results: We collected a total of 802 individuals from 15 species and 4 taxonomic units, 5 genera, and 4 tribes. Notably, this may be the first records of Wyeomyia felicia Dyar & Núñez Tovar and Culex derivator Dyar & Knab from Ecuador. Additionally, the presence of Culex dunni Dyar and Psorophora ferox von Humboldt (both recognized as vectors) was correlated with increased rainfall. Conclusions: The abundance of mosquitoes, including potential vector species, increased during the rainy season, indicating a higher risk of pathogen transmission. However, the relationship between rainfall amount and diversity patterns is not well-defined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution of sibling cannibalism as a maternal strategy is particularly challenging to explain when nurseries are shared among multiple females. Such is the case for the damselfly, Megaloprepus caerulatus, whose females lay eggs in bark above the water line in large, water-filled tree holes. Asynchronous egg hatching appears to be a maternal bethedging strategy to increase the chances that cannibalistic offspring hatch during windows of opportunity, which occur after the remaining large larvae emerge, having eaten all others. We investigated the proximate causes of asynchronous hatching. By monitoring the pattern of egg hatching under ambient temperature in an insectary, we found that egg hatching cooccurred with lower ambient temperatures, which decreased with increasing rainfall. Treating fully developed eggs to a lower temperature for two hours triggered increased hatching relative to controls at ambient temperature. Dissection of control clutches indicated that embryonic development of siblings was asynchronous. Results suggested that the hatching trigger is adaptive. Rainfall assures a recharge of the larval habitat with water and provides wet conditions essential for neonate mobility on bark. Only 40% of neonates in a 4-day drying treatment survived; none survived the 8- and 14-day treatments. This novel hatching trigger should increase the number of neonates entering the nursery after rains, constraining a mother's control over the timing of egg hatch, while increasing the competition among related and unrelated offspring for limited windows of opportunity in the shared nursery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxorhynchites mosquitoes have been studied as potential biological mosquito control agents because they consume other mosquito larvae. As a top predator, Toxorhynchites species are also considered keystone predators in phytotelmata. However, limited information is available regarding Toxorhynchites christophi, which is found in northeast Asia. The present study investigated whether Tx. christophi could reduce mosquito populations and increase species diversity by functioning as a mosquito control agent and keystone predator, respectively. During the study, aquatic insects were collected every three weeks (May--October, 2018) from tire habitats, which resemble treehole ecosystems, at the Korean National Arboretum in the central region of the Korean Peninsula. The samples were separated into the surface- and the substrate-groups based on their behavior, and the communities were compared based on the density of Tx. christophi. As a result, the communities with a higher density of the predators showed a higher diversity and evenness, and the communities also had a lower mosquito ratio, dominance, and density of the surface-group. The results of both non-metric multi-dimensional scaling and one-way analysis of similarities also indicated that the communities were affected by the density of Tx. christophi larvae. Similarity percentage analysis results revealed the effects of this predator on the communities could mainly be attributed to reductions in the densities of the three dominant mosquito species (Aedes koreicus, Ae. flavopictus, and Tripteroides bambusa). Thus, Tx. christophi may be valuable as both a biological mosquito control agent and keystone species of treehole ecosystems by reducing dominant mosquito species and improving species diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phytotelmata are used by many insects for breeding. This study was designed to identify mosquito species breed in phytotelmata available in the Kalutara district. A larval survey was carried out once every two months from January 2019 to April 2021 in thirteen Medical Officer of Health (MOH) areas. For each survey, 20 premises including houses, institutions, public places, roadsides, open areas, and plantations were examined in one randomly selected Grama Niladari (GN) division in each MOH area. According to the study, 18 mosquito species belonging to 6 genera were identified in 8 types of phytotelmata namely; tree holes, bamboo stumps, leaf axils, tree trunks, fruit husks, fruit shells, fallen leaves, and fallen spathes. Species richness was highest in tree holes and species diversity was highest in fallen leaves. Similarly, 17 types of coexistence could be observed. The coexistence of four species Aedes chrysolineatus, Ae. downsiomyia, Ae. w-albus, and Ae. krombeini were observed in Dillenia suffruticosa fallen leaves. Species richness and species diversity of mosquitoes that breed in phytotelmata were highest in Walallawita. The correlation between the volume of water in phytotelmata and the number of larvae in the phytotelmata habitat was statistically insignificant. Although phytotelma is a hidden aquatic habitat, this study indicated that it is an important breeding place for a variety of mosquitoes including vector mosquitoes such as Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus.

The selection of habitats with potential reproductive resources may maximize individual reproductive success and overall fitness. Dendrobatid frogs display remarkable parental care which is associated with water bodies (phytotelmata) contained in plants with characteristics that are important to offspring survival. It has been shown that the size of phytotelmata is a key factor that drove the divergence in parental care patterns in poison frogs and that the distribution of reproductive resources can influence space use in these species. Here, we investigated parental care strategies and the influence of reproductive resource distribution on space use patterns in a wild population of Andinobates claudiae in Bocas del Toro, Panama. We identified the phytotelmata characteristics that predict tadpole deposition and analysed the association between the spatial distribution of phytotelmata and spatial use of males and females. Our observations showed that this species mates polygamously and exhibits male parental care. We found that male frogs have smaller kernel density home ranges and core areas compared to females, and that space use is related to the density of Heliconia plants whose axil cavities are used for tadpole rearing. Furthermore, we found that tadpoles were more frequently found in phytotelmata that were at lower heights and contained larger water volumes. Fathers invested time inspecting multiple cavities and travelled further than predicted from their territories to find suitable deposition sites. Our observations suggest a selective choice of phytotelmata regarding tadpole deposition, where distribution and quality of cavities might influence parental care decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Many species of Neotropical frogs have evolved to deposit their tadpoles in small water bodies inside plant structures called phytotelmata. These pools are small enough to exclude large predators but have limited nutrients and high desiccation risk. Here, we explore phytotelm use by three common Neotropical species: Osteocephalus oophagus, an arboreal frog that periodically feeds eggs to its tadpoles; Dendrobates tinctorius, a tadpole‐transporting poison frog with cannibalistic tadpoles; and Allobates femoralis, a terrestrial tadpole‐transporting poison frog with omnivorous tadpoles. We found that D. tinctorius occupies pools across the chemical and vertical gradient, whereas A. femoralis and O. oophagus appear to have narrower deposition options that are restricted primarily by pool height, water capacity, alkalinity, and salinity. Dendrobates tinctorius tadpoles are particularly flexible and can survive in a wide range of chemical, physical, and biological conditions, whereas O. oophagus seems to prefer small, clear pools and A. femoralis occupies medium‐sized pools with abundant leaf litter and low salinity. Together, these results show the possible niche partitioning of phytotelmata among frogs and provide insight into stressors and resilience of phytotelm breeders.

Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) is a disease that is a problem in Indonesia, especially East Java. Sidoarjo is one of the city with high DHF cases in East Java with a total cases until 1,708 in 2016. One of the factors that support the increase in DHF cases is the availability of breeding site of Aedes. Research about breeding sites of Aedes in plants is limited. Vector control is often carried out only to ponds, air containers, and other artificial breeding sites, while in nature there are many plants that can to used breeding site such as phytotelmata. Phytotelmata are plants that can hold water in one of their bodies. This study aimed to determine the diversity of types and types of phytothelium, the physical condition of the water collected in the phytothelium and the Aedes species found in the phytotelmata. This research used descriptive observational. Determination of the sampling point using purposive sampling method. The results showed that there were eight species of phytotelmata which were used as breeding site for Aedes spp. in Sidoarjo, namely Musa paradisiaca, Pandanus amaryllifolius, Cocos nucifera, Neoregelia spectabilis, Bambusa sp. Neoregelia charm, Aechmea fasciata, and Xanthosoma sagittifolium. The Aedes species found were mostly Ae. albopictus. The average of air volume of the phytotelmata is 95.84 ml with water temperatures is 25-26oC and water pH is 6-7.

ABSTRACT Trachycephalus cunauaru is an Amazonian hylid that uses phytotelmata to reproduce. There is relatively little information about the species, mainly due to the difficulty of accessing their reproductive sites. In this study, we gathered data on the ecology and natural history of T. cunauaru in the southern Amazon, in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. In addition to natural phytotelmata, we used buckets installed at a height of 10 m as artificial phytotelmata. We compared physical and chemical characteristics, as well as the presence of tadpoles between natural and artificial phytotelmata. We also collected data on the reproductive behavior of the species through the use of camera traps. We recorded a density of 14.1 reproductive sites per km². Environmental parameters differed significantly between artificial and natural phytotelmata. In artificial sites, the presence of tadpoles was directly related to trees with a larger diameter. We registered oophagy for the first time for the species and observed that males can use more than one phytotelm. We also recorded the presence of snakes within the reproductive sites. We determined that artificial sites and digital camera traps are a satisfactory alternative for behavioral observations of T. cunauaru and possibly for other species with a similar habit.

Microplastics, pervasive pollutants in aquatic environments, have been primarily studied for their impact on marine ecosystems. However, their effects on freshwater systems, particularly in forested phytotelmata habitats, remain understudied in Subtropical systems. This research examines the influence of varying microplastic concentrations (0.0, 200, 2,000, 20,000, and 200,000 ppm) on leaf litter breakdown of Inga vera (in bags of 10 and 0.05 mm mesh) and the naturally associated invertebrate community occurring in forested phytotelmata. The study employs an experimental design with microplastic concentration treatments in artificial microcosms (buckets with 800 mL of rainwater) arranged in an area of Atlantic Rain Forest native vegetation of Subtropical systems. The results indicate that elevated concentrations of microplastics may enhance leaf litter breakdown (6–8%), irrespective of the bag mesh, attributed to heightened decomposer activity and biofilm formation. Consequently, this contributes to increased invertebrate richness (33–37%) and greater shredder abundance (21–37%). Indicator analysis revealed that Culicidae, Stratiomyidae, Chironomidae, Empididae, Planorbidae, and Ceratopogonidae were indicative of some microplastic concentrations. These findings underscore the significance of accounting for microplastics when evaluating the taxonomic and trophic characteristics of invertebrate communities, as well as the leaf breakdown process in Subtropical systems. [Display omitted] We would like to highlight the following novelty, relevance, and Implications of this manuscript: • Rare in situ study on microplastics in Neotropical aquatic systems, especially phytotelmata. • Higher microplastic concentrations increase leaf litter breakdown (6–8%). • Enhanced breakdown rates lead to greater invertebrate richness (33–37%) and shredder abundance (21–37%). • Invertebrate families identified as biomarkers for specific microplastic concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immature Diptera are more diverse and abundant in fresh water than any other insect order. The question arises whether the earliest dipterans, known from the Upper Buntsandstein of Europe (early Anisian, Middle Triassic), already developed in water and whether such mode of life was inherited from the ancestor of the order or if, alternatively, the dipteran larvae were ancestrally terrestrial. Nematoceran immatures have become common and diverse in the Mesozoic fossil record since the Middle Jurassic, but the vast majority of them represent only two culicomorphan families, Chaoboridae and Chironomidae. Earlier records and records of immatures of other families from the Mesozoic are extremely rare. A total of four larvae and about 30 pupae have been described from Anisian assemblages of France and Spain. Among these, one larva clearly belongs to Culicomorpha, the infraorder most closely associated with fresh waters, and one larva to Bibionomorpha, the infraorder most closely associated with terrestrial habitats, while the rest are hard to classify. Nevertheless, most of the pupae are morphologically similar to the semi-aquatic pupae of extant Limoniidae and Ptychopteridae from wet habitats. The oligopneustic respiratory systems of the Anisian larvae and their apparently allochthonous burial also suggest their semi-aquatic development, which appears to have been the ancestral mode of life of Diptera. The absence of dipteran immatures in lacustrine Konservat-Lagerstätten of the Madygen and the Cow Branch Formations (Ladinian–Carnian and Norian, respectively) is explained by the aquatic conditions being unfavorable for insect immatures and invertebrates in general.

The hidden‐state speciation and extinction (HiSSE) model helps avoid spurious results when testing whether a character affects diversification rates. However, care must be taken to optimally analyze models and interpret results. Recently, Tonini et al. (TEA hereafter) studied anuran (frog and toad) diversification with HiSSE methods. They concluded that their focal state, breeding in phytotelmata, increases net diversification rates. Yet this conclusion is counterintuitive, because the state that purportedly increases net diversification rates is 14 times rarer among species than the alternative. Herein, I revisit TEA's analyses and demonstrate problems with inferring model likelihoods, conducting post hoc tests, and interpreting results. I also reevaluate their top models and find that diverse strategies are necessary to reach the parameter values that maximize each model's likelihood. In contrast to TEA, I find no support for an effect of phytotelm breeding on net diversification rates in Neotropical anurans. In particular, even though the most highly supported models include the focal character, averaging parameter estimates over hidden states shows that the focal character does not influence diversification rates. Finally, I suggest ways to better analyze and interpret complex diversification models—both state‐dependent and beyond—for future studies in other organisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reviews predators that are able to control populations of mosquito larvae (Culicidae) in phytotelmata and their anthropogenic analogs. The spectrum of mosquito larva consumers in micro-reservoirs is listed. It includes flatworms, crustaceans, arachnids, insects, vertebrates, and carnivorous plants. The biology and practical use of the two most effective biological control agents, predatory mosquitoes Toxorhynchites and copepods, are considered in more detail. Prospects of invertebrate predators as controlling agents for the mosquito larvae in micro-reservoirs in temperate climate zones are briefly discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe the advertisement call of seven males and observations on the natural history related to the parental attention by males, of a population of nurse frogs attributed to the Leucostethus fraterdanieli complex from the Central Cordillera in the Department of Caldas, Colombia. The advertisement call consists of a long sequence of repeated (x̅ = 143 notes.min-1) pulsed notes, which have an average duration of 79 ± 17 ms (range 63-122 ms), separated by time intervals between 187-413 ms (289 ± 67 ms). The dominant frequency values are in the range between 3209-3520 Hz. Our results suggest differences in temporal and spectral parameters between the population studied and other populations assigned to L. fraterdanieli, L. brachistriatus, and the recently described L. jota.

This research aims to identify physicochemical characteristics in natural breeding habitats/ phytotelmata of dengue vector—including Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti and Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus. The research was conducted during rainy season and pre-dry season (from January to June 2017) in the region with the high cases of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF). The entomological survey was carried out by stratified random sampling in urban and rural areas in order to find potential breeding habitats, every natural breeding habitats in sampling location were checked for the presence of Aedes larvae. Physicochemical characters that consist of temperature, turbidity, carbon dioxide, ammonia, nitrate, sulphate, pH and dissolved oxygen were recorded. Larval species were taken and then identifying activities were conducted in the Laboratory of Entomology. Data were analysed using the Chi-square test. Results showed that only dissolved oxygen that significantly associated with larval abundance (p=0.039). while others are not significantly associated. Whereas, other characters are associated with each other, carbon dioxide associated with the ammonia and sulphate (p=0.001; p=0.028). Turbidity associated with the dissolved oxygen (p=0.022) and pH associated with nitrate (p=0.001).

Amphibian larvae typically inhabit relatively shallow freshwater environments, and within these boundaries there is considerable diversity in the structure of the habitats exploited by different species. This diversity in habitat structure is usually taken into account in relation to aspects such as locomotion and feeding, and plays a fundamental role in the classification of tadpoles into ecomorphological guilds. However, its impact in shaping the sensory worlds of different species is rarely addressed, including the optical qualities of each of these types of water bodies and the challenges and limitations that they impose on the repertoire of visual abilities available for a typical vertebrate eye. In this Perspective article, we identify gaps in knowledge on (1) the role of turbidity and light-limited environments in shaping the larval visual system; and (2) the possible behavioral and phenotypic responses of larvae to such environments. We also identify relevant unaddressed study systems paying special attention to phytotelmata, whose small size allows for extensive quantification and manipulation providing a rich and relatively unexplored research model. Furthermore, we generate hypotheses ranging from proximate shifts (i.e., red-shifted spectral sensitivity peaks driven by deviations in chromophore ratios) to ultimate changes in tadpole behavior and phenotype, such as reduced foraging efficiency and the loss of antipredator signaling. Overall, amphibians provide an exciting opportunity to understand adaptations to visually limited environments, and this framework will provide novel experimental considerations and interpretations to kickstart future research based on understanding the evolution and diversity of strategies used to cope with limited visibility.

The Culicidae mosquito family breeds in various natural and artificial water bodies. Phytotelmata are plant structures that hold water and are used by many mosquito species during their life cycle. Mosquitoes are disease vectors, and phytotelmata play an important role in harbouring them. Investigating these phytotelmata will facilitate to develop appropriate site specific vector control strategy. Approximately 750 phytotelmata in 16 locations on Car Nicobar Island was examined. Mosquito larvae were collected from different habitats such as tree holes, root holes, leaf axils, and bamboo stumps. On average, the number of larvae per 10 ml of water ranged from 0.003 to 3.833. Among the 16 mosquito species identified, there were vectors of malaria ( Anopheles sundaicus ), dengue ( Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus ) and filariasis ( Culex quinquefasciatus ), belonging to seven genera. The most common phytotelmata were coconut trees (17.5%) followed by Java apple trees (10.3%) and bamboo stumps (7.1%). The most widespread mosquito species was Aedes edwardsi , followed by Aedes malayensis and Ae. albopictus , and the per cent of phytotelmata that contained these species were 42.6, 22.0, and 16.8% respectively. Anopheles mosquitoes had the highest container index (6.1%) in root holes, while Aedes and Culex mosquitoes were more frequently found in bamboo stumps. The alpha biodiversity indices indicated that the mosquito population in Car Nicobar Island was highly diverse ( S = 16; DMg = 36.9). Tree holes showed the highest diversity, as all 16 species were collected from them. Assessment of phytotelmata, there is a significant relationship observed between mosquito genus, village, habitat, and tree families, on the remote island of Car Nicobar. Considering the presence of disease-transmitting mosquito vectors in the phytotelmata, these habitats should be considered when implementing control measures to eliminate mosquito-borne infections.

Vocal sacs are among the most conspicuous features of anurans and are particularly striking in casque-headed treefrogs (Hylidae: Hylinae: Lophyohylini) with their wide array of morphologies. In this paper, we assessed the anatomy of vocal sacs in representatives of the Lophyohylini, described eight discrete characters and studied their evolution. We inferred that dorsolateral projections of the vocal sacs were already present during the early evolution of the tribe. Subsequently, they reached surprising volumes in some species, whereas in others they were notably reduced. We inferred between nine and 11 independent events of reduction of the size and lateral projections of the vocal sac, showing unprecedented levels of plasticity for the structure. Moreover, these events were strongly correlated with the colonization of phytotelmata as breeding sites, probably due to their confined space which hampers the inflation of large vocal sacs. Finally, we discuss the evolution of paired lateral vocal sacs in different groups of anurans, and the extent to which the paired and dorsally-projecting lobes of most Trachycephalus differ from those of distantly related taxa. Our findings highlight how variation in internal structure affects the shape of the inflated vocal sac and provides a framework applicable across the Anura. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The family Ceratopogonidae are constituted by four genera Forcipomyia, Leptoconops, Austroconops and Culicoides. They are small Diptera known commonly by maruins, gunpowder mosquitoes. The larvae have an elongated and cylindrical body. Adults are predators and hematophagus, they feed on human blood other animals where they can transmit diseases. The objective of this work was to describe the taxonomic and ecological aspects of immatures of the family Ceratopogonidae in the igarapés present in the Environmental Protection Area of Buriti do Meio in the city of Caxias - Maranhão. Samples were collected from December 2017 to May 2018 and material collected in the years 2016 and 2017 were deposited in the Laboratory of Aquatic Entomology at CESC / UEMA. Environmental and physico-chemical factors were evaluated. The specimens were collected with entomological network in D (rapiché) and manual harvesting in leaves, roots, phytotelmatas and macrophytes, in areas of current or backwater. In the study, 287 larvae of the Ceratopogonidae family were obtained, with two subfamilies, Dasyheleinae, Ceratopogoninae. The subfamily Ceratopogoninae was abundant with 197 specimens and Dasyheleinae with 88 specimens. The most abundant genera were Culicoides (n = 132), Dasyhelea (n = 88), Bezzia (n = 52) and Palpomyia (n = 13). For the three igarapés found, the Riachão I obtained greater abundance of specimens (N = 193), followed by the Buriti I creek (N = 42) and with smaller abundance the Riachão II creek (N = 9), while the Buriti lagoon obtained abundance of N = 41 specimens. The studied igarapés have sandy loam to clayey, present riparian vegetation, canopy of open to closed along the igarapé. The average of the substrates was, leaf 26.6%, trunk 10%, root 25%, Macrophytes 6.6%, stone 3.3%, sand 28.3. The mean values for the studied factors were temperature 26.8 ° C; acid pH 5.8, conductivity 47.8 μS / cm, dissolved oxygen 10.9, width 3.3m, depth 0.64m, velocity 0.2cm / s and mean flow rate 0.56cm3 / s. Biodiversity studies of the Ceratopogonidae family are essential for general knowledge of genera, help define areas of risk and distribution of certain diseases, and propose management and control strategies that minimize the annoyance transmitted by these insects in infested areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Bromeliads are numerous both in diversity and abundance in the Atlantic Rainforest, one of the most threatened biomes on Earth. They are also an important habitat for several animal species that live in the water retained by its rosette structure. In this study, we aimed to characterize and compare the macroinvertebrate community of two bromeliad species from Atlantic forest fragments. One is characteristic of Dense Ombrophilous Forests, Aechmea ornata, and the other occurs in Mixed Ombrophilous Forests, Aechmea recurvata. We sampled and identified macroinvertebrates form 24 bromeliads, 12 of each species. A total of 19 taxa and 656 specimens were sampled. In both bromeliad species, Diptera was the most abundant insect order (n=417), represented mostly by mosquitoes (n=227) and non-biting midges (n=107), followed by Scirtidae marsh beetles (n=216). Aechmea ornata presented higher abundance and lower invertebrate richness compared to Aechmea recurvata. Seven taxa were exclusive of A. recurvata, eight were common to both, and four, including a sponge, occurred only in A. ornata. The most abundant invertebrate taxa were common to both bromeliads and are regarded as typical of lentic environments. On the other hand, the high number of exclusive species indicates that conservation efforts should include bromeliads from these two phytophysiognomies to secure protecting the diversity of phytotelmata communities.

Many species of Neotropical frogs have evolved to deposit their tadpoles in small water bodies inside plant structures called phytotelmata. These pools are small enough to exclude large predators but have limited nutrients and high desiccation risk. Here, we explore phytotelm use by three common Neotropical species: Osteocephalus oophagus, an arboreal frog that periodically feeds eggs to its tadpoles; Dendrobates tinctorius, a tadpole‐transporting poison frog with cannibalistic tadpoles; and Allobates femoralis, a terrestrial tadpole‐transporting poison frog with omnivorous tadpoles. We found that D. tinctorius occupies pools across the chemical and vertical gradient, whereas A. femoralis and O. oophagus appear to have narrower deposition options that are restricted primarily by pool height, water capacity, alkalinity, and salinity. Dendrobates tinctorius tadpoles are particularly flexible and can survive in a wide range of chemical, physical, and biological conditions, whereas O. oophagus seems to prefer small, clear pools and A. femoralis occupies medium‐sized pools with abundant leaf litter and low salinity. Together, these results show the possible niche partitioning of phytotelmata among frogs and provide insight into stressors and resilience of phytotelm breeders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Mosquito borne diseases are proliferating all around the world. Mosquito habitats can be categorized into temporary and standing pools, both of which influence human health. To understand the extent of their presence in Dominica, a survey of mosquitoes was conducted by observing phytotelmata (plant-held water) and pools in streams present at the Archbold Tropical Research and Education Center (ATREC) in Dominica, West Indies from May 23rd, 2017 to June 14th, 2017. To test phytotelmata and pool stream habitats, samples were collected from different water holding plants and standing pools in various areas surrounding the station. The larvae obtained from these samples were then reared and identified. Fifteen mosquitoes were reared from pool streams, and 27 mosquitoes were reared from phytotelmata. The species Aedes busckii (Diptera: Culicidae) (Coquillet) were found to be the most common in phytotelmata, and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) (Say) were found to be the most common in pool streams. Past research suggested that Aedes busckii were the only species found in phytotelmata. However, Culex inflictus (Diptera: Culicidae) (Theobald) was also found to inhabit waterholding plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mosquitoes such as the disease-vectoring genus Aedes lay their eggs in containers of stagnant water. Some species prefer plant containers, or phytotelmata. We tested the hypothesis that bacteria inside these containers, which are known from experiments to affect mosquito oviposition choices, correlate with insect presence or absence in the field. We sampled natural containers from two localities in northern Taiwan: the Fushan Botanical Garden (Yilan County) and the Cherry Blossom Lane of Pingjing Street (Taipei City), the latter thrice over two years. In addition to identifying mosquito larvae, we performed culturing-enriched molecular profiling of the total bacterial communities in the container waters and the larva themselves. Phytotelmata mosquito diversity and microbial diversity were low (less than five species of either) and differed over time. In this study, the presence of mosquitoes, including medically significant genera, did not seem to correlate with bacterial communities or plant species. Both mosquito and microbe communities in these containers vary too greatly with time and on a microgeographic scale to identify specific microbe-insect interactions using metabarcoding. Research should focus on single-species experiments with cultured microbes, or long-term field studies covering all seasons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Many plants may accumulate rainwater, forming phytotelmata, aquatic microhabitats inhabited by various organisms. The aim of this study was to conduct an inventory of heterotrophic flagellates associated with phytotelmata of the bromeliad Aechmea distichantha Lem., found in rocky cliffs on the Upper Paraná River. The bromeliads were removed manually from the rocky wall, the water was removed and cultures of organisms of each plant were mounted in Petri dishes. Sixteen species of heterotrophic flagellate were recorded, drawn and described, among them one species belonging to the Amorpha Domain and 15 species to the Diaphoretiches Domain. The groups with most species were Euglenida and Kinetoplastea. The low diversity of heterotrophic flagellates recorded in this study, compared to the plankton of lakes and reservoirs, is probably related to the fact that phytotelmata are habitats with extreme environmental conditions, thus selecting organisms tolerant to these environments.

During this sampling campaign, the canthocamptid Attheyella (Canthosella) thailandica sp. nov. was collected from various caves in Thailand. The new species is widely distributed in the country and favours habitats, such as phytotelmata and wet soil. Attheyella (Canthosella) thailandica sp. nov. is the second member of the genus to be found in Thailand, after Attheyella (Canthosella) vietnamica Borutzky (1967), which is most similar to it. Amongst Asian species, both A. (C.) thailandica sp. nov. and A. (C.) vietnamica have identical setal formulae, with a greater number of armatures on the distal endopods of legs 2-4. However, A. (C.) thailandica sp. nov. markedly differs from A. (C.) vietnamica in the insertion point of the dorsal seta and the presence of inner spinules on the caudal ramus. Additionally, the leg 4 endopod is two-segmented in A. (C.) thailandica sp. nov., but one-segmented in A. (C.) vietnamica. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leptagrion acutum Santos, 1961 is endemic to Brazil and, since 2003, listed as Critically Endangered in the Red Book of Threatened Brazilian Fauna. In this study, L. acutum is recorded for the first time from the state of Bahia, expanding known occurrences of this species to northern areas of the Atlantic Forest. Three males were collected in the Veracel Station Private Reserve of Natural Heritage. Information concerning distributional records of rare or endangered species is essential because it can add to species' occurrence records and assist in future Red List assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe the advertisement call of seven males and observations on the natural history related to the parental attention by males, of a population of nurse frogs attributed to the Leucostethus fraterdanieli complex from the Central Cordillera in the Department of Caldas, Colombia. The advertisement call consists of a long sequence of repeated (x2 = 143 notes.min-1) pulsed notes, which have an average duration of 79 ± 17 ms (range 63-122 ms), separated by time intervals between 187-413 ms (289 ± 67 ms). The dominant frequency values are in the range between 3209-3520 Hz. Our results suggest differences in temporal and spectral parameters between the population studied and other populations assigned to L. fraterdanieli, L. brachistriatus, and the recently described L. jota. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The digestive fluid of tropical pitcher plants (Nepenthaceae: Nepenthes L.) typically harbor communities of symbiotic organisms in nature, an example of a phytotelm ecosystem. While the inhabitants of pitchers (primarily the arthropods) have been described and studied from a community ecology perspective for over a century, many abiotic properties of the fluid environment have not been thoroughly documented. As the abiotic properties of the pitcher fluid micro-environment may have fitness and/or functional consequences on the inhabitants, it is of interest to examine intraand interspecific variation in fluid properties. Here I report observations of dissolved oxygen levels in Nepenthes pitchers. I find evidence that Nepenthes pitchers actively modify dissolved oxygen levels in the fluid and that this oxygenation ability may vary ontogenetically, with relatively hypoxic conditions in newly opened pitchers and high oxygen levels maintained in more mature pitchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Biotropica is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Water-filled tree holes are abundant microhabitats in forests worldwide and are inhabited by specialized communities of invertebrates. Despite their importance, the temporal dynamics of communities within and between years are largely unknown. Here, I present a case study on the phenology of insect larvae in two holes in a beech tree (lower and upper canopy) located in southern Germany over a period of three years. I asked whether water temperature and the characteristics of insect larvae at the community and population levels are similar in periodicity every year and whether they differ in the lower and upper canopy. The water temperature in tree holes differed greatly from air temperature, and this effect was more pronounced in the lower than in the upper canopy, which resulted in a lower probability of drying out occurring in the lower canopy. This was associated with a higher species richness in the lower canopy and greater abundance of drought tolerant species in the upper canopy. There was a significant periodicity in larval abundance, biomass, species richness and body size distribution of abundant species in both tree holes, but it was not seasonal. This result indicates that unpredictable drying out of tree holes are more important drivers of tree hole community dynamics than changes in water temperature. The community of larvae in the tree hole in the upper canopy lagged behind that in the lower canopy, which indicates that most species mainly colonize the more stable microhabitats in the lower canopy. Hopefully this case study will encourage future larger-scale phenological studies to test (1) whether the patterns observed in this study can be generalized over larger spatial scales and (2) the relative importance of abiotic and biotic drivers of the dynamics of communities in tree holes.

To investigate patterns of biotic community composition at different spatial scales and biological contexts, we used environmental DNA metabarcoding to characterize eukaryotic and prokaryotic assemblages present in the phytotelmata of three bromeliad species (Aechmea gamosepala, Vriesea friburgensis, and Vriesea platynema) at a single Atlantic Forest site in southern Brazil. We sampled multiple individuals per species and multiple tanks from each individual, totalizing 30 samples. We observed very high levels of diversity in these communities, and remarkable variation across individuals and even among tanks from the same individual. The alpha diversity was higher for prokaryotes than eukaryotes, especially for A. gamosepala and V. platynema samples. Some biotic components appeared to be species‐specific, while most of the biota was shared among species, but varied substantially in frequency among samples. Interestingly, V. friburgensis communities (which were sampled at nearby locations) tended to be more heterogeneous across samples, for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The opposite was true for V. platynema, whose samples were more broadly spaced but whose communities were more similar to each other. Our results indicate that additional attention should be devoted to within‐individual heterogeneity when assessing bromeliad phytotelmata biodiversity, and highlight the complexity of the biotic assemblages gathered in these unique habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elevation is an important determinant of ecological community composition. It integrates several abiotic features and leads to strong, repeatable patterns of community structure, including changes in the abundance and richness of numerous taxa. However, the influence of elevational gradients on microbes is understudied relative to plants and animals. To compare the influence of elevation on multiple taxa simultaneously, we sampled phytotelm communities within a tropical pitcher plant (Nepenthes mindanaoensis) along a gradient from 400 to 1200 m a.s.l. We use a combination of metabarcoding and physical counts to assess diversity and richness of bacteria, micro-eukaryotes, and arthropods, and compare the effect of elevation on community structure to that of regulation by a number of plant factors. Patterns of community structure differed between bacteria and eukaryotes, despite their living together in the same aquatic microhabitats. Elevation influences community composition of eukaryotes to a significantly greater degree than it does bacteria. When examining pitcher characteristics, pitcher dimorphism has an effect on eukaryotes but not bacteria, while variation in pH levels strongly influences both taxa. Consistent with previous ecological studies, arthropod abundance in phytotelmata decreases with elevation, but some patterns of abundance differ between living inquilines and prey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many animals breed exclusively in plants that accumulate rainwater (phytotelma; e.g., bromeliad, bamboo, fruit husk, and tree hole), to which they are either physiologically or behaviorally specialized for this microhabitat. Of the numerous life‐history modes observed in frogs, few are as striking or potentially consequential as the transition from pond‐ or stream‐breeding to the deposition of eggs or larvae in phytotelmata. Such specialization can increase offspring survivorship due to reduced competition and predation, representing potential ecological opportunity for adaptive radiation, yet few lineages of phytotelma‐breeding frogs appear to have diversified extensively after such a transition, at least in the New World. We use a phylogeny of Neotropical frogs and data on breeding microhabitat to understand the evolutionary transitions involved with specialized phytotelma‐breeding. First, we find that phytotelma‐breeding is present in at least 168 species in 10 families of frogs. Across the phylogeny, we estimate 14 origins of phytotelma‐breeding and 115 reversals, showing that phytotelma‐breeding is a highly labile character. Second, phytotelma‐breeding lineages overall have higher net diversification than nonphytotelma‐breeding ones. This specialization represents an ecological opportunity resulting in increased diversification in most families with phytotelma‐breeding lineages, whereas phytotelma‐breeding toads have restricted diversification histories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]