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Active pedagogy methods refer to a set of educational approaches that aim to put learners in a position where they actively engage in their own learning processes. To achieve this, these methods rely on the learners' experiences and promote engagement through inquiry, participation, critical thinking, learning by doing, and collaboration in the learning process. In this text, we will present research focused on one of these methods, the "problem-based" approach. We will demonstrate that the ability to solve problems is not a given, and that this goal can only be achieved if it is accompanied by another capability: the ability to problematize. Enabling learners to problematize is, therefore, a crucial objective of a problem-based pedagogy, and it is essential to analyze the conditions for its development. Our research examines some of these conditions through the experiences of a group of 22 first-year preparatory students at an engineering school. By using the theoretical framework of capabilities, we will show that these skills cannot be analyzed solely based on the learners' dispositions or the pedagogical methods implemented, but also require an analysis of the opportunities provided by the learning environments.

This dossier explores the concept of school form. Following Guy Vincent’s work, it is defined as a way of transmitting knowledge, but also as a way of socializing. It presupposes a particular pedagogical relationship, a specific space and an established organization of time, operating standards that guarantee a school order. However, this school form is taking on a new meaning in today's social context. The aim of the contributions is to examine how current educational systems and practices are challenging the school form. The focus on children and not just pupils, the inclusion of new groups in the context of inclusive education and the opening up of schools to non-teaching professionals are all helping to shake up the school form. Through the description and analysis of systems designed and piloted by schools and implemented in the field, or practices initiated by the professionals themselves and sometimes resisted by their superiors, this dossier demonstrates a desire to respond to the challenges of a changing school and a changing society. The teaching practices and school systems presented here all contribute, in their own way, to maintaining or challenging the school form.

The aim of this article is twofold: on the one hand, it is to review the definition of the concept of ‘school form’ and its successive clarifications in Guy Vincent's various papers. I do so by highlighting the historical, sociological and philosophical dimensions of such an approach. This enables me to stress the political and moral implications of this concept irreducible to that of structure. On the other hand, I intend to prove, by drawing on the socio-historical context in which this concept was devised, that the school form as it arose in France builds on the pedagogical model inherited from the work of Jean-Baptiste de La Salle. This model is rooted in an ideal of class homogeneity, which, from the beginnings of the republican school to the present day, has had the effect of making it very difficult to accommodate the heterogeneity of the students’ abilities. My analysis is based on the example of multi-grade classes which have long been challenged by this school form, as the latter is incompatible with the former, whose classes are inherently heterogeneous.

Since 2014, Autism Kindergarten Education Units (UEMA) were set up. Combining specialized and ordinary environments, they aim to meet the specific needs of children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). This study aims at identifying the obstacles and facilitators related to the inclusion of young children with ASD attending school in UEMA. The analysis focuses more specifically on the reverse inclusion system, with an activity shared between children in ordinary classes and those with disabilities within the specialized unit, which contrasts with the inclusion usually implemented and which tends to disrupt the traditional school form. From a double theoretical framework — in social psychology and in interactionist sociology — and a mixed methodology — filmed observations and semi-structured interviews — the case study allows to identify how reverse inclusion structure affects the way of thinking and organizing the school form, by playing on the dynamics of interactions between young children with ASD (in terms of social participation) and adults (in terms of guidance).

The objective of this study was to better understand in what and how the evolution of co-teaching over a school year between a primary school teacher and a physical education teacher transforms the traditional school form for the benefit of the inclusive education. To do this, participant observations of thirty-two PE sessions and twenty-eight co-planning sessions treated with constant comparative analysis brought out three themes. First, provided that co-teaching is supported by the schools, co-planning is progressively more efficient, promoting the construction of an inclusive class climate. Secondly, provided teachers are compatible and com-plementary, pedagogical remediation is more original in the service of student social participation. Finally, following the construction of work habits between teachers, the forms of co-interventions are more varied for the benefit of students' motor learning.

What consequences does the practice of the outdoor school have on the school form? If the spatial and temporal context is in fact modified, the pedagogical practices and the relationships established with the children depend on the teachers' will. However, this desire remains constrained by an institutional context that is visible in particular in the formal curriculum. The research, carried out in a kindergarten practicing school in the forest one morning a week, shows how teachers deal with this curriculum and modify their relationships with the children. By being attentive to the child beyond the pupil and by valuing informal learning situations, they gather more spontaneous forms of oral expression than those instituted in the classroom.

The article aims at the ecosystem description of the 48 schools in the network of alternative public schools of Quebec (RÉPAQ), based on the positive stories of the experiences of former students and current actors. To understand their common functioning from an outside eye, we voluntarily put aside the discourse and vocabulary of their internal documents and interviewed actors with diverse roles in 14 of these schools: teachers, management, educational advisors, parents, daycare providers, former students. The triangulation of points of view reveals regularities of lived experiences, a whole coherent ecosystem of postures and functioning. This particular school form appears to be based on a reassuring and motivating framework, which creates, in action, mutual respect, all ages and roles combined. The relationship to knowledge seems to be a relationship to curiosity, to daring, to the art of investigating to understand, a taste for learning. The methodology is qualitative and comprehensive. The approach is phenomenological: identifying the phenomena at work as closely as possible to the experiences of the participants, while respecting their perceptions.

Pupils categorized by the educational institution as newly arrived allophone pupils have, under the consideration of special educational needs, compensatory rights materialized by linguistic and pedagogical support in a pedagogical unit for incoming allophone pupil or in other specific systems. Under the paradigm of the inclusion of all students, they are enrolled in a regular class and operate back and forth between their class and the device. This situation creates challenges for the school form and structures in a unique way the teaching and learning relationships as well as the social relationships between pupils. We propose a reading of the adaptations of the pedagogical relationship based on the space-time relationship.

The term "school form" has become something of a commonplace, and should be questioned in terms of its heuristic scope for understanding teaching practices. Even if the socio-historical form identified by Guy Vincent is clearly evolving in the operation of many contemporary establishments through the development of pedagogical innovations, this concept still appears relevant for questioning pedagogical practices in the various singular dimensions characteristic of school situations. Based on an analysis of the different dimensions at play in the practices presented in the contributions to this issue, and drawing on research into "different pedagogies" (Flexible Classrooms, Freinet Pedagogy), this article seeks to put into perspective a model of contemporary developments based on a reflection on the registers and degrees of rupture with the determinants of the initial "school form" that we can identify in school practices.

Our study focuses on implementing and analyzing the first version of a "flipped classroom" hybrid tutoring program, as part of an action research in a first-year university physics course. Guided by the contributions of several fields of literature, we designed the program to improve interactions between peers and with the teacher, and mitigate students' tendency towards passivity during group exercise sessions. Our analysis first focused on the students' perceptions of the program, collected in an open and closed-ended questionnaire. To identify at-risk student profiles in the course, we also constructed statistical models to explore the links between the socio-demographic characteristics and past schooling of first-time enrolled students, their participation in the program, and the grade obtained on the exam. Based on the results, we discuss avenues to be explored in future analyses and adaptations to be made to the second version of the program.

Composite documents are used by teachers as teaching materials for pupils. Most of the teachers choose to design these documents themselves to make their pupils work. Yet, these materials are both difficult to design and complicated to read and understand. This article focuses on the obstacles that teachers encounter in the context of their documentation work based on the experience of three of them practicing in second year of primary school and having developed three composite documents during their first year of participation in cooperative research group on the continuation of learning to read in cycle 3 (CM1, CM2, 6e). The analysis of these obstacles highlights the necessary evolutions, particularly in terms of teacher training, aimed at making their documentation work effective, at the service of the learning of all pupils.

This article deals with the place and meaning of improvisation in the work teachers in France by exploring a corpus of interviews from the perspective of pragmatic sociology and activity analysis. The confrontation between the different discourses of the teachers and their practices shows that far from the generally expressed defiance, improvisation takes several forms and can represent a resource for the development of the grammar of the activity, the genre and the professional style of the teachers.

Nursing education, like education in higher education, has made a gradual digital turn, combining face-to-face and distance learning phases, “supported” by an increasingly efficient technical and pedagogical environment. Our study aims to shed light on how trainers of six nursing schools in the same university area implemented this blended approach. Professional development is approached through the prism of trainers' experience and through the characterization of blended courses. This study reveals the profound meaning that trainers attribute to their profession. It underlines through the expression of their experience several obstacles and potentialities in this process.

This text focuses on a collaborative system in Secondary School : the Professional Learning Community (PLC) much known as a collaborative plan. It traces the development of a PLC in the Canton of Geneva over several years. In the scientific works, PLC is seen as a procedural plan, which could be simply implemented to guide and frame the work of teachers. On the contrary, the article insists on the importance of taking into account the context in order to support the development of collective activity.

This dossier investigates the so-called flipped classroom, which a growing number of teachers are claiming to be their own. In its best-known or recognised forms, the flipped classroom consists of an interpolation of the traditional division of school work between the inside and outside of the classroom. In practice, teachers who declare to practice this innovation implement it in a wide variety of ways. The authors of the articles consider this variety not as a limitation but as an opportunity for research. This is why they chose not to start from an a priori definition of this polymorphous innovation, but from what teachers say about it, in different disciplines and contexts. The aim is to understand what different elements of the traditional school form teachers choose to shake, why and how they do so. And to analyse, on the one hand, the feedback effects for the students in terms of their learning and the scaffoldings that makes it possible; on the other hand, the feedback effects for the teachers themselves, in terms of their professional development.

This article studies a flipped classroom system in French in a secondary school, in the context of a study on the interpretation of poetry texts. A session was filmed, the students' productions and work materials were collected, the interactions between the students, who work in groups, were recorded and transcribed, and then semi-directive self-confrontation interviews were conducted with the teacher and the students. The analysis of this corpus is based by theoretical supports borrowed from the sociology of the teaching profession, from the analysis of activity and from didactics, particularly the didactics of literature. It shows that being professionally and pedagogically innovative is not always enough to ensure the learning of demanding disciplinary knowledge by all students. Flipped classroom seems to commit the teacher to three contracts that can prevent each other: the first, which can be described as "social", links her both to the school institution, whose prescriptions she wants to follow as closely as possible, and to a group of innovative professionals, which she wants to join. The second, more pedagogical in nature, leads it to train pupils who are more autonomous and capable of working in teams. The third, didactic, wants to enable students to appropriate literary texts by making a personal interpretative reading of them

In mathematics, in secondary and university education, some teachers can be considered as "inverters" in the sense of the five criteria retained in the presentation of the dossier, even if in this discipline there is a great diversity of inversion practices. To advance on the questioning of this type of device, which involves the exposure of knowledge differently from what is done in classical sessions, we make a methodological detour. In keeping with the theory of activity, we present specific ways of analyzing the moments of knowledge exposure, whatever the process, in class or not. From some studies carried out in didactics of mathematics on this subject, we draw out the first common results. A discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of the two types of knowledge exposure modalities, with or without inversion, concludes this work. This leads us to hypothesize about inversion and opens perspectives for further work.

The practice known as the "flipped classroom" was developed around 2006. Less than ten years later, this practice is enjoying a certain craze. This craze is shown in France by the creation in 2014 of the collective Inversons la classe! which is devoted to training in the practices of the flipped classroom approach. The phenomenon of online communities and the interest of research for professional development in these spaces is not new. However, it is renewed with the rise of the social web and its uses by teachers and teachers' collectives. Many studies question the interest of professional interactions on digital social networks for professional development. Our data consist of activity traces from digital social networks and an interview. They allow us to describe an individual trajectory of participation in relation to the selected professional development indicators. Our results indicate that reported changes in practice were not socially constructed during discussions with other participants. They rather reveal a progressive engagement in a process of identity negotiation. Therefore, the teacher gradually finds the recognition of the collective, thanks of the relationship built with a main figure of the Network.

This contribution is part of a multidisciplinary collective research project on the transformation of the activity of teachers and students in the context of the "flipped classroom". Based on semi-directive interviews and self-confrontations conducted with teachers and their students, data from student interviews were analyzed using the learning registers proposed by Elisabeth Bautier and Patrick Rayou crossed with Charles Sanders Peirce’s semiotics. The first results show differences between the registers that the students mobilize according to the nature of the interview, as well as in the articulation of the registers. The combination of semi-directive interviews and self-confrontations opens up promising methodological perspectives, allowing both students to express their activity in a richer way and researchers to better apprehend the experience lived by the students.

This article presents the implementation of a flipped classroom by a teacher in the context of teaching about the chemical digestion of food in humans in a French class with pupils 12-13 years old. A session was filmed, the pupils' productions and work support collected, the interactions between the pupils, who work in groups, were recorded and transcribed, and then semi-directive self-confrontation interviews were conducted with the teacher and the pupils, following the traces of their activity. The analysis of this corpus is framed by theoretical supports borrowed from the sociology of the teaching profession, from the analysis of the activity and from didactics, in particular the didactics of life and earth sciences. It shows that the reverse class system does not in itself resolve some of the obstacles that traditional teaching also faces. The choice of the capsule and its articulation with the other elements of the course raise questions about the teaching aids, the effects of which (possibly disruptive) on pupils' learning should be studied. In addition, the use of group work, which is fairly systematic in flipped classroom system, provides an opportunity to question the difficulties that this teaching method may pose for pupils and teachers, in particular the way in which it may lead to misunderstandings about the aims of the work requested.

The flipped classroom, which appeared in the Chinese schools and universities in 2011, was well received there. This paper presents, based on a bibliometric study, the main trends in English-speaking and Chinese-speaking research on the issue, between 2010 and 2020. In this scientific work, the first step is to describe the innovative elements: for as regards tools, use of digital technologies, multimedia supports ; in terms of pedagogy, focus on learners, activity-based learning, cooperation, distinction between low-level tasks, carried out before school time, and high-level tasks, in particular problem-solving, carried out during school time. Some of the research reviewed assesses, using various methods, the effects on learning and academic performance, the building of autonomy, critical thinking skills and teamwork. The paper also shows how scientific work on the question crosses different research disciplines, what are the specificities according to the fields covered, and the main trends of recent developments, especially in China. It pays attention to local characteristics and to the diversification of forms of inversion; it shows the limits of these pedagogies and puts their innovative character into perspective.

Following the development of information technologies, higher education is evolving towards hybrid devices with the flipped classroom. This article reports on research that attempts to perceive differentiated repositioning of space-time and actors in the flipped classroom. We interviewed nine higher education teachers in Belgium (French-speaking part) who call themselves “inverters". The study of the reasons that led these teachers to opt for the flipped classroom system highlights the importance of personal experiences as well as the existence of differences in interactions with students. These results, coupled with the analysis of the implementation of the system through the didactic triplet (Sensevy, 2011), have brought to light two ideal-types. The first is characterized by the teacher's control over the entire system or the devolution of the advancement of knowledge to the students. The second alternates control and devolution.

This work aims to analyze the effect exerted by the initial and continuous training of secondary school teachers in France on their teaching practices. For this, we carry out a secondary analysis of data from the TALIS survey (Teaching and Learning International Survey), conducted in 2013 in 34 coun-tries, including France. In particular, we focus on practices related to the teaching methods used, classroom management, how to communicate, and the evaluative practices of teachers. In support of binary logistic regression models, we show that the variables related to initial training play a weak role, and even exert a negative effect on certain pedagogic practices, leading to a reflection on the renovation of this training. On the other hand, our analyzes highlight the greater weight played by certain continuing education actions.

This paper is based on the findings of a recent study which revealed that, among Moroccan teenagers aged 10 to 18 years old, manifestations of Dialogical Critical Thinking predominantly take on an “epistemological perspective” labelled “relativism” by a Grounded-Theory-based developmental model formulated over the past fifteen years. In order to understand these results, which contrast with those of teenagers of the same age from Quebec and France, firstly we describe the developmental model used. Then we illustrate the ways Moroccan teenagers manifest the “relativist epistemological perspective” in their speech. Based on verbatim excerpts, the current study demonstrates how Moroccan teenagers display a tendency to distance themselves away from their personal experiences, to focus on others’ points of view and to co-construct convergences with their peers. Using an approach that understands social representation as a “scene” as well as the literature related to old persons in African societies, this paper attempts to explain the results of this study by analyzing a social representation frequently mentioned in the discourse of interviewed Moroccan youths and which revolves around the age hierarchy and the duty to listen to the elderly. The analysis of this “scene” highlights the social attitudes instilled in teenagers living in the Moroccan cultural context and which are likely to foster the development of a relativist epistemological perspective with regard to dialogical critical thinking.

This article aims to present conditions that must be respected by the teacher during a philosophy for children workshop so that the participants’ speeches contribute to the formation of thinking. Indeed, this educational approach which, in recent years, has seen its popularity spread throughout the world, is reversing traditional pedagogies in education by placing the child at the very center of the classroom - literally as well as figuratively. This revolution can be explained by the recognition of an intimate and necessary link between speech, dialogue and thinking. It will be explained in these pages how reflection is intrinsically linked to the expression and how, in return, this expression also implies a double risk for children. Therefore, it will be explained how an education aimed at the formation of thinking should make sure to provide children with an environment in which they can dare to express themselves. However, it will also be presented how speaking is not enough in itself for the formation of thinking. Therefore, rather than just letting children express themselves, the role of the adult should be to challenge them to think by making sure that this speech meets certain conditions such as taking the form of an inquiry and allowing the mobilization of intellectual skills.

Focussed on research practices with children, and not only on children, this paper proposes a reflexive glance on the issues of two empirical inquiries conducted by the authors in two researches with two - four years old children. After the presentation of the political and social stakes of children’s voice, we show the international development of studies of early childhood education and care. We underline the “guided tour” as a visual methodology, which facilitates the researchers’ reflexivity and sustain young children’s competences, especially migrant children. We analyse how they use photography as “voice” for accounting their experiences in early childhood centres and nursery schools. As the question of children’s domination by adults is unavoidable, we emphasize that research must deal with a new meaning of children – experts of their own life, as political subjects and not only as social agent.

In the early 1980s, four experimental high schools were authorized to open within the French public school system (le Lycée expérimental de Saint Nazaire, le Lycée Autogéré de Paris, le Collège - lycée expérimental d’Hérouville-Saint-Clair, le Centre Expérimental Maritime en Oléron). Some of these high schools have chosen a self-managing pedagogy. If educational self-management was experimented with in public education in the early 1960s and theories and practices of self-management developed in the 1960s and 1970s in France, what are the motivations of these high schools for educational self-management ? Has the self-management model influenced the members of these high schools ? Paradoxically, these experiments, which are few and far between, have been able to resist the dominant model in French public education to date. The creation of these high schools thus appears as an opportunity to promote and boost the self-management that marked many fields of French society from the late 1960s to the early 1980s.

To study documents in history class is a common practice. However, the skills to be able to study them in history are general. We identified a skill to build a problem from classroom documents. Our experiments have led us to observe an important obstacle to the acquisition of this skill: students wonder if the document is objective. We will see what this remote out of the epistemology of historians implies.

As part of a research conducted in support of a primary school, we will question the collective ownership process of a particular educational device designed by the teaching team: the work plan. The objectives of teachers from this device, are to promote the individualisation of academic learning of students, taking into account their individual rhythms and promote their autonomy in work. Using data from group meetings conducted within research and support, we will analyze the reasons that teachers mobilize to build agreements for the device used. The sociology of justification (Boltanski and Thevenot, 1991) will be convened to highlight the tradeoffs that characterize the device from particular value systems and different "worlds" from which refer teachers to coordinate their actions within the device

High school history teaching practices are recognized as having some common characteristics: predominance of lectures and a focus on historical contents rather than skills, for example. This article focuses on this observation and seeks to make sense of it by analyzing the specificities of the history teachers’ work. The question of the norm thus takes several figures in this research. In fact, observing practices allows disciplinary norms shaping the work of the history teacher to be considered, as well as the manner in which official prescriptions are received, integrated and transformed by history teachers, who thus create a more viable "action environment". The results show that this group of professionals has a specific disciplinary culture, which focuses on the organization and transmission of historical knowledge and the construction of what we call the "homemade learning book".

French institutional texts on science education are now strongly focused on students' problem-based learning and take into account their investigations. Given this development it seems particularly interesting to study what happens during debates where students' explanatory ideas are expressed and confronted and during subsequent discussions, when the teacher aims at leading the class towards a reasoned and scientifically acceptable explanation. This is what we have sought to accomplish in this study, which is based on two « forced sequences » (body movements, volcanism, 9-11year-old students). We attempt to identify how this situation allows for the emancipation and the scientific acculturation of students. We show that the debates can allow each student to open up to other possible explanations, and thus to free himself/herself from his/her own production while bringing it into a common pool of ideas (acculturation/emancipation). But this movement towards emancipation is not immediate because students can confine themselves to their prejudices. Didactic devices such as caricatures of the different explanatory models of the class or classification of arguments, appear to be facilitators of both emancipation and acculturation.

This text is a contribution to thinking about emancipation functions and their conditions during academic visits in museums. From a didactical point of view, studying those situations leads us to analyse them through the notion of subject. Indeed, it comes to analyse together, on one hand, the didactic subject during singular situations like academic visits in museum, on an other hand, the institutional subject according to the reference institution involved in this partnership, finally the subject author of speeches (scientifical, museological or scholastic sciences). Although emancipation deals with an individual in relation to a group, academic visits in museum are, most of the time, based on a collective experience. Those are the dimensions elaborated in this article leading us to question about (de)personalization of the speeches producted by scientists, museologists and school-visitors.

This article reports on a collaborative approach in three classes of the third year of nursery school. The study brings together preschool teachers and one researcher collaborating on a « forced situation » (Orange, 2010) in collective games. The situation is based on an alternation « action-debate-action » for the pupils. The objective is the pupils problematize from an obstacle encountered in situation in order to surpass it and to transform their motor skills. The ability of nursery pupils to problematize as well as the impact of the problematization activity in the construction of motor learning in physical education are examined in this study.

A qualitative study was conducted by means of interviews of eight chemistry teachers in two universities. It determined the uses and the functions that the teachers assign to examples in their teaching. The teachers surveyed agree about the place and caracteristics of examples, about their cognitive, pedagogical, motivational or mediative functions On the contrary they disagree when it comes to designate what is done in practical sessions, which are essentially examples for some and concrete situations for others. The analysis of the justifications given by the teachers shows that choosing to use a specific example or a certain type of example is due to various influences which partially condition the teachers’ practices. The mediative role toward the industrial world seems more important in master or professional degree but no real case studies including several types of skills and knowledge are being conducted.

The strong link between mathematics and examples is analysed as a very component of mathematical activity. Then some didactical tentative proposals are presented for developing mathematical training based on a reasoned use of examples. Interviews with researcher-teachers enable to identify different types of using examples at a universitary level in the French context. In fact examples are considerd as a crucial element that is necessary for conducing efficient mathematical work, including for students; nevertheless, their use remains marginal in mathematical teachers’ practives: their teaching privileges grand theoretical constructions and their emblematic theorems.

The evolution of teaching practices in higher education is at the heart of many debates to face challenges such as low student motivation or the growing heterogeneity amongst student population. In this context, the choice was made to question the use of examples in higher education. It is a frequent practice, shared by lecturer from many areas, but rarely studied by research in education at university level. We first present theoretical considerations in order to propose a definition of what an example in higher education can be. We then consider the questions raised by such practices in the relation between lecturer and students and the effectiveness in terms of student learning. The researches presented in this issue question the didactical choices of lecturer at university when using examples in their courses. It is a based on the opinion of lecturers from different subjects: physics, chemistry, mathematics, history, geography and urbanism. This interest in university lecturers’ practices and their multiple uses of examples in class then raises the question of the effectiveness in relation to student engagement and learning.

Geography and Urban planning teaching is focused on space in a general and theoretical point of view but it also deals with specific places. Using examples or case studies to teach geography or urban planning seems to be natural. This fact is largely based on a disciplinary legacy for which empirical geography is built around regional case studies. While geography has experienced different epistemological developments, it seems interesting to question the reality of teaching practices in contemporary geography education in the university. That is what this article proposes to do through the analysis of a corpus of interviews with French teacher-researchers in the geography or urban planning field.

This paper addresses the roles of examples when dealing with mathematical proof in higher education. I use the distinction between semantic and syntactic approaches to get a first insight. Then I focus on a specific role: the contribution of examples in proving. I put forward a reference framework, the dialogic approaches of logic, to offer model of validation which is enough comprehensive to give an account for both example use and formal utterance manipulation. The model is grounded on the concept of game. Two main findings are pointed out. The distinction between play level and strategy level helps to address the dynamic facet of proof process. Besides, the model permits to better grasp the common or specific aspects of formal manipulations and examples consideration, the specific ones being sometimes overvalued in my viewpoint.

Using examples in physics teaching at university level is commonplace and inevitable. As researchers in physics education (didactic of physics) we question what academics in physics say when they describe why, when and how they use examples while they teach. These declared uses are considered as markers of the relationships academics maintain with the teaching and the learning of the physics; they allow us to go back to certain dimensions of their professional identity, considered in its epistemological and educational dimensions.

This article reports on a case study on teachers’ video-enhanced education. Considering the fact that video exemplification is a thriving practice in the field although there is little consensus in the literature regarding its instructional issues, it seems appropriate to focus on the activity carried out by teachers in video-enhanced devices in order to identify promising characteristics (nature of the examples, types of associations between them, documentation methods, organization and scenarization, etc.). This study involved six trainees who used, during two sessions of 45 minutes, a digital device based on a « pedagogy of typical professional paths » (Durand, 2014; Ria & Leblanc, 2011). The goal was to better understand their use of video exemplification and sense-making. The results indicate that student teachers (i) preferentially target resources about "economic rules"; (ii) plebiscite classroom situations, always consulted; (iii) are particularly interested (even if they are sometimes disappointed) in the experts’ testimonies; (iv) initially show a distrust toward resources assumed to be theoretical; (v) get gradually interested in these resources during the second session. We conclude with several empirical and technological prospects for the design of video-enhanced devices for teacher induction.

What is an example to academic teachers in history and what for? What value is placed on the example and how is it used in teaching history at the University? What relationship between uses of example and nature of history? How the two modalities of example (exemplum and casus) are used in teaching? Based on 8 interviews, the paper explores the proliferation of pratices, uses, functions of examples and questions the epistemological basis of the practices. The value placed on the example that has a function both pedagogical and cognitive is related to an implicit epistemology. But since case in research field is considered as the opposite of example, it becomes the same in the teaching of history.

French-speaking Belgian teachers often use textbooks in their foreign language classes, especially at elementary and intermediate levels. Most modern textbooks follow the communicative approach which is based on four skills (reading, listening, speaking and writing). A few more recent textbooks adopt the action-oriented approach recommended by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, based on tasks that have to be fulfilled in a given set of circumstances. These textbooks have lots of qualities such as the richness of the language input and the variety of learning activities; nevertheless, they also share some features that can lead to unequal learning. This is especially true when students use the textbooks at home. In this article, three textbooks (English, German, and Spanish) are examined in the light of learning (in)equality. Results show that they share the following features: the drafting language of the textbook, the length and density of the units, the units’ heterogeneous and composite nature, the inductive and “spiral” approach to grammar explanations, the lack of open-ended exercises preparing students for the complex final task, to name a few. Teachers may reduce these risks through their use of the textbooks in class provided they are aware of these characteristics and of their possible impact on unequal learning.

As part of the “Guided personal assignments”, each student has to write a logbook aiming to guide their research. Often seen as a minor tool, students can fill them artificially and rebuild them after their research. Teachers, as far as they are concerned, give more or less importance to this process according to their subjects. If these different uses of the logbook generate different kinds of cognitive socialization, they also lead teachers to appreciate the writing abilities of their students when it comes to talking about themselves or to taking an impartial and structured look at their own learning process. These writing abilities peculiar to the educational way of thinking, forged and transmitted during secondary school, lead up to some forms of school domination, including when it is based on “free” activities and loose instructions (Bernstein, 1975).

This article presents the early results of a quasi-experimental and longitudinal research on the teaching practice of reading and writing informative texts and the related skills needed to succeed in school. Some findings about frequently used supports in the Belgian public school system will be explained. Those supports for informative texts are characterized by a versatility of form, which brings some difficulties for the students. Obstacles in changing the pedagogical practice of teachers will also be discussed. The research will reflect upon the data collected before and after a sequence of lessons implemented in classes of first-year secondary students (12-13 year olds) and the related speech of teachers. The title of this sequence is: “Getting to know the use of informative explanatory and justifiable texts”. Based on these findings, the study highlights some approaches to promote good classroom practices.

Since the 2000s, the pupils from kindergarten to secondary school have to use a new tool: the notebook of experiences and observations (CEO) which should develop learning, simultaneously improving the command over the language, group life, and the acquisition of scientific skills. The meaning of this learning constructed by the pupils, and of which the CEO keeps track, will be analysed with the help of the notion of subject consciousness developed by Yves Reuter (2003, 2007). It is defined as the manner in which the academic actors (re)construct academic disciplines and permits a closer look at the difficulties that pupils experience. This article therefore, presents some results of a study aimed at analysing how the consciousness of scientific disciplines is constructed by the pupils of kindergarten and grade 2 with the help of the CEO. What the CEO looks like? What are the actual activities carried out by the students? What do pupils retain of the use of the CEO? We will analyse the productions of the pupils whose entry into writing is difficult or easier, and will then cross-reference them with both interviews conducted at the end of their work and class observations.

This article is about the role played by worksheets in the building of knowledge in French preschool and the differentiations that these teaching aids can produce. It is built on a field study carried out in six classes of grande section (third and last year of preschool, intended for 5/6-year old children) from different social backgrounds. This article describes three dimensions related to the use of worksheets in preschool classes which, when they are combined, participate to differentiations in the construction of the pupil’s knowledge. First, it shows that worksheets are not neutral mediums insofar as they are based on a specific learning mode and they contribute to shaping the knowledge itself. Then, it presents the different registers from which pupils interpret worksheets, by stressing that only a minority of pupils rely on a literacy mode which corresponds to school expectations. Finally, it underlines how the material dimension the worksheets tends to strengthen the least literacy approaches to knowledge. Thus, this article leads to a better understanding of how worksheets fail to allow pupils to integrate the literacy dimension if they do not master it previously, and how the relation to knowledge and the materiality of these teaching aids contribute, on the contrary, to reinforcing the registers which are most distant from school expectations.

In this study, we aim to highlight some ways in which students manage or fail to establish connections (between heterogeneous elements when reading composite – therefore non-linear – texts (Bautier et al., 2012), and when using multiple semiotic systems or verbal statements with various targets. In particular, we want to show that some students’ are able to establish continuity between the various elements coming from these materials, while others find it more difficult. We also examine their ability to link various elements coming from these materials or other elements from their own experience. In this context, the teacher’s role will be studied, especially the way he/she helps students make connections. We will analyse:the choice of material; the choice of educational devices (implementation, development); the arbitration during the students’ verbal exchanges; the way each student’s personal experience is taken into account.

This contribution is based on an ethnographic study on teaching practices regarding primary school student autonomy. It highlights the tools used in observed classes and the intellectual prerequisite abilities of students. It deals with the plurality of these tools used by the students, in particular those considered "deviant" by teachers. Deviance categories are analyzed as indications of prerequired skills existence. They contribute to the formation of social inequalities in the first years of schooling because they are not explicitly objectified and taught.