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Background: The habitat structure, the environmental impact, the market acceptance, the changes in consumers' preferences, and the pandemic urged for innovative solutions in urban last-mile delivery. Parcel lockers are among the most preferred solutions by customers due to their home proximity, time availability, and cost efficiency. Methods: This paper introduces an agent-based model (ABM) and a Monte Carlo simulation program to analyze in detail the activity of parcel locker points. The ABM describes the behavior of the agents (customers, parcels, lockers, delivery agents). The simulation is realized using ARENA 12 software. Two scenarios are created based on the number of daily delivery shifts; for each scenario, 300 simulation experiments with various input data are conducted. Results: Three measures of performance (MOPs) are selected to assess the system activity: the number of daily delivered parcels, the delivery time of an order, and the daily delayed orders. The simulation outputs reveal significant predictors of MOPs and disclose moments when actions need to be taken to increase system capacity or change customer behavior. Conclusions: The versatility of the simulation model in terms of input variables makes it a useful decision support tool for planning by highlighting quantitative assessments, organizing delivery activity, along with influences due to customer behavior changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the final link in the supply chain, last-mile delivery is a vital connection between upstream supply chain operations and customers. The recent surge in demand for contactless last-mile delivery services has spurred extensive research on parcel lockers. This study systematically reviews the determinants of consumer adoption and experiences with parcel lockers in Vietnam, during the COVID-19 pandemic while considering insights from other countries. The review was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Most of the literature identified reliability, convenience, and security as primary drivers of customer preference for parcel lockers. Additionally, factors such as ease of use, usefulness, service quality, cost, and location were found to predict consumer preference and experience with parcel lockers. This study integrates various theories, including those related to supply chain management, consumer behavior, and technology acceptance, and discusses advanced technologies to provide a comprehensive framework for enhancing smart locker adoption in Vietnam. The empirical findings offer valuable insights for promoting parcel locker adoption, considering co-cultural contexts and technological advancements.

This paper analyses the efficiency and carbon footprint of different last-mile delivery solutions, including parcel lockers, pick-up points, and home deliveries. A Decision Support Tool (DST) is developed, utilizing real data on parcel deliveries and time allocation. The DST distinguishes between fixed, variable, and salary costs, revealing that time spent on delivery tasks and associated salary costs are the primary cost drivers. Deliveries to pick-up points are more efficient than deliveries to parcel lockers, but this efficiency depends on the number of parcels delivered. The environmental footprint of the solutions is influenced by how recipients collect their parcels.

Background: The growth of e-commerce necessitates efficient logistics management to address rising last-mile delivery challenges. To overcome some of the last-mile delivery costs, parcel lockers as a delivery option, can be an alternative solution. This study presents the Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem with Delivery Options (CVRPDO), which includes locker delivery. Methods: this problem is solved with An Adaptive Large Neighborhood Search (ALNS). The solution suggests some specific destroy and repair operators and integrates them with various selection schemes. The proposed method results are compared with the exact solution of the MIP model of the problem for validation. Results: Objective function values improved by 25%, 30%, 7%, 5%, and 6% for 1000, 800, 600, 400, and 200 customers, respectively, when using a 120-s ALNS runtime compared to the MIP model with a 3-h runtime. Conclusions: the CVRPDO problem involves creating a set of routes for ve-hicles that visit each customer at their delivery location or deliver their parcels to one of the lockers. These routes should respect the capacity of each vehicle and locker while minimizing the total routing costs and the number of utilized vehicles. The problem is resolved by ALNS algorithm, which outperformed the MIP model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parcel lockers have emerged as an effective solution to address inefficiencies in last-mile delivery. However, the selection of an appropriate location plays a crucial role in ensuring optimal service and enhanced logistic performance. To address this challenge, this work aims to define the best location for parcel lockers in the capital of Ireland, Dublin by conducting a novel decision-making model. The Spherical Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (SF-AHP) has been adopted to deal with the uncertainty in the decision maker preferences, while the Euclidean Distance-Based Aggregation Method (EDBAM) has been conducted to aggregate the decision makers preferences. The proposed integrated model is an applicable approach to elude AHP deterministic disadvantages, moreover, it is the first application of SF-AHP and EDBAM to select parcel lockers’ location. The findings, including the identification of the top three optimal locations, namely “Post office,” “On commercial area,” and “High population density area,” along with their respective weight scores, provide valuable insights for policymakers making strategic decisions regarding parcel locker placements in Dublin city.

Recent global trends related to the increasing use of e-commerce are becoming a challenge for courier transport, especially in the last-mile process of delivering products to the final retail recipient. One delivery method is the personal collection of the parcel in an automated post box, available 24/7 for the customer. Our research method was based on a preliminary selection of the most important features of parcel lockers’ service quality, which were extracted based on the analysis of the scientific literature and previous research. This analysis was carried out by conducting a survey of Polish parcel locker users that provided data coded according to the dimensions of the Kano model. Based on the total satisfaction index, the results allowed us to conclude that a dedicated application (−0.96), proper placement of the parcel in the box (−0.82), adjusting the size of the parcel to the size of the box (−0.79), the location of parcel stations (−0.74), and ensuring improvements for the disabled (−0.62) are the most important features in the process of the automatic delivery of parcels to recipients in urban areas. This paper enriches the literature on the customer service quality of self-service technologies for last-mile delivery with the use of automated parcel lockers.

Background: The habitat structure, the environmental impact, the market acceptance, the changes in consumers’ preferences, and the pandemic urged for innovative solutions in urban last-mile delivery. Parcel lockers are among the most preferred solutions by customers due to their home proximity, time availability, and cost efficiency. Methods: This paper introduces an agent-based model (ABM) and a Monte Carlo simulation program to analyze in detail the activity of parcel locker points. The ABM describes the behavior of the agents (customers, parcels, lockers, delivery agents). The simulation is realized using ARENA 12 software. Two scenarios are created based on the number of daily delivery shifts; for each scenario, 300 simulation experiments with various input data are conducted. Results: Three measures of performance (MOPs) are selected to assess the system activity: the number of daily delivered parcels, the delivery time of an order, and the daily delayed orders. The simulation outputs reveal significant predictors of MOPs and disclose moments when actions need to be taken to increase system capacity or change customer behavior. Conclusions: The versatility of the simulation model in terms of input variables makes it a useful decision support tool for planning by highlighting quantitative assessments, organizing delivery activity, along with influences due to customer behavior changes.

Last mile logistics accounts for a small part of deliveries geographically, but generates disproportionately high costs, energy consumption, and pollutant emissions. Parcel lockers are a solution with great potential to make deliveries more sustainable. In order to use this potential, the network should be designed in such a way that users are willing to collect parcels on foot or by bicycle and to use a given number of parcel lockers to cover as much area as possible. This area is still unexplored. The purpose of this article is to present a geometric method for designing a network of parcel lockers taking into account user preferences. Authors have used methods such as literature studies, survey, and statistical analysis. The analysis conducted showed that using a triangular network allows for greater coverage than a square one with the same number of parcel lockers. The median declared distance to allow regular parcel collection by walking or cycling was 500 m. Characteristics such as gender, age, education, and type of residence did not affect this parameter. Implementing data on customer preferences into the design of a parcel locker network and using a triangular network of parcel lockers allows for deliveries to be more sustainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ongoing expansion of e-commerce has exacerbated the costs and inefficiencies of last-mile delivery. The growing demand for goods and services is concentrated in cities, which apply increasing constraints to reduce urban externalities. The paper aims to contribute to the development of a bottom-up approach where all stakeholders are involved in the design of efficient strategies for e-commerce last-mile delivery through the understanding of their priorities and perspectives. It applies a multi-stakeholder approach to evaluate the feasibility, strengths, and weaknesses of different policy measures to enhance e-commerce distribution. To this aim, two subsequent surveys were launched online. The first one was addressed to 25 experts, while 202 respondents from different European cities fulfilled the second survey. According to the results, increasing the number of parcel lockers in the city center would receive more support among stakeholders. Members of the public administration and citizens agree on prioritizing environmental aspects for implementing strategic solutions for LMD. On the other hand, consumers argue that economic criteria should be prioritized. In general, the results suggest that no single solution fulfils or satisfies all stakeholders' objectives. However, all stakeholders express their consent to prioritize city liveability and they consider noise pollution as a secondary issue. In line with the outputs of the research, including multi-stakeholder perspectives from the early stage it is crucial in the planning of LMD policy measures in city centers. Governments and actors involved in LMD should select suitable policy measures for a comprehensive strategy to address urban sustainability targets. • On-line Multi-stakeholder evaluation that expands its applicability. • The strengths and weaknesses of different policy actions are evaluated. • Low-cost method to include multiple stakeholders for efficient LMD planning. • Stakeholders consider parcel lockers as a suitable policy measure for urban deliveries. • City liveability is a common priority for all stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current courier networks in metropolitan areas are characterised by utilising fleets of vans that perform collection and distribution routes independently. This results in long stem distances, low load factors and high environmental costs. Joint delivery systems have the potential to reduce the distances of pick-up and drop-off routes. In this context, parcel lockers can be utilised to transfer goods between vans, electrical vehicles and bikes to improve the efficiency and sustainability of courier networks. This paper presents a model for designing joint delivery networks in urban areas by utilising parcel lockers. This model has a two-level structure: the lower level dealing with multi-depot capacitated vehicle routing problems (MDCVRP) for a set of depots and lockers whilst the upper level being a (minimum-cost) parcel network flow problem (PNFP) considering goods delivered between depots and lockers and the selection of lockers' positions and sizes. A hybrid algorithm integrating a Genetic Algorithm with the Lin-Kernighan Heuristic has been developed. The GA focuses on finding solutions for the PNFP. Once the paths of parcel flow are determined, the LKH optimises vehicle flow. This paper is the first to consider the use of parcel lockers for business-to-business networks in the form of MDCVRP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spread of e-commerce has driven a major growth in the parcel delivery market, bringing a negative impact on sustainability, especially due to last-mile deliveries in urban areas. It is crucial to appropriately tackle this issue to foster consolidation of deliveries, possibly by using collection and delivery points (CDPs), where customers might receive their parcels. This paper proposes a new spatial agent-based modelling approach to explore different scenarios of last-mile logistics referred to e-commerce deliveries, comparing fragmented door-to-door deliveries with consolidation-based strategies. The case study is the central urban area of Catania, a medium sized city in Southern Italy. The Agent-Based Model (ABM) reproduces feasible operations considering real-world spatial constraints and demand data, including the possible matching of customers’ systematic trips and parcel delivery via CDPs with small detours from the scheduled trip. Key performance indicators consider both customer and logistics operator perspectives. Main results of the simulation show that the scenario without CDPs is the costliest and least efficient, implying a high number of failed deliveries. Using cargo bikes instead of vans to perform the delivery implies high costs, but much higher benefits in terms of reduced energy consumption. The highest logistics efficiency is achieved in the scenario with a doubled demand, implying a better use of the CDPs. The results suggest that it is advisable to incentive the use of CDPs instead of increasing their number. The ABM can provide useful information to decision-makers on how to manage growing on-demand urban deliveries and plan last-mile logistics using a delivery-oriented development approach.

Freight transportation in urban areas represents an essential activity from the standpoint of economic development; in recent years, the spread of e-commerce (also accelerated by COVID-19) has contributed to increasing the demand for freight distribution over short distances. In most cities, the approaches and measures are often based on new technologies. Nevertheless, today there are contexts wherein delivery operations represent critical tasks to be solved. Furthermore, low accessibility areas, such as small islands, present further problems due to their exclusive dependence on maritime links (and often low-reliability services). This paper tackles this topic, formulating and solving a distribution problem by linking shipping services with last-mile distribution operated by means of an automatic delivery service (parcel lockers). A test application is proposed by considering the small island of Lipari in the archipelago of the Aeolian islands (Sicily, Southern Italy). The results show that such a type of service could reduce the user's waiting time when compared to traditional home deliveries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainability has gained significant importance in e-commerce, as it impacts both consumer behavior and company success. This paper contributes to the literature on sustainability in e-commerce by studying the perceived sustainability of three common last-mile delivery methods (home delivery, parcel lockers, and click and collect) and other drivers of consumers' acceptance of each delivery method (perceived costs, convenience). Based on a review of the relevant literature, a conceptual model integrating key determinants of consumers' attitudes to delivery methods and their intention to use them is derived and tested using a sample of 536 German online buyers. The results demonstrate that perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness increase the acceptance of the delivery methods, whereas perceived costs constrain it. The findings reveal significant influences of perceived sustainability on the acceptance of the delivery methods, which vary between its three components (environmental, economic, and social) and regarding the delivery method. Retailers and collaborating parcel delivery services are advised to continue making last-mile delivery methods more convenient. However, they are also advised to implement standards in terms of environmental and social sustainability and inform customers about their efforts regarding sustainable last-mile delivery to build a competitive advantage in omni-channel retailing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parcel lockers have continuously growing in popularity as an alternative mode for last-mile delivery services due to their capability of effectively alleviating the risk of a delivery failure, increasing the possibility of delivery consolidation, and reducing the number of drop-off sites. However, poorly located of parcel lockers be less efficient. When determining the parcel locker location, inadequate consideration of uncertain demands can potentially increase the risk of unsatisfied demands. To remedy this issue, a robust optimization model is proposed in this paper with consideration of the demand uncertainties, including the large and small parcels to be received and sent. Not only can the collection locations be optimally determined, but so can the number of large and small parcel lockers for each location at the same time under various robust levels. Meanwhile, the sites whose demands are covered by one of the collection locations are also determined by the constraints of acceptable walking distance. A series of numerical experiments has been performed to evaluate the proposed model, with the main focus being on the solution robustness. Since the set of non-linear constraints are transformed into the linear counterparts, the robust solution can be obtained by the existing solvers within a reasonable time with moderate computing power. The experimental results also provide useful guidance for the practical application of the method, as slightly more conservative decision making can secure the solution robustness with only a marginal increase in costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the final link in the supply chain, last-mile delivery is a vital connection between upstream supply chain operations and customers. The recent surge in demand for contactless last-mile delivery services has spurred extensive research on parcel lockers. This study systematically reviews the determinants of consumer adoption and experiences with parcel lockers in Vietnam, during the COVID-19 pandemic while considering insights from other countries. The review was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Most of the literature identified reliability, convenience, and security as primary drivers of customer preference for parcel lockers. Additionally, factors such as ease of use, usefulness, service quality, cost, and location were found to predict consumer preference and experience with parcel lockers. This study integrates various theories, including those related to supply chain management, consumer behavior, and technology acceptance, and discusses advanced technologies to provide a comprehensive framework for enhancing smart locker adoption in Vietnam. The empirical findings offer valuable insights for promoting parcel locker adoption, considering co-cultural contexts and technological advancements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The growth of e-commerce necessitates efficient logistics management to address rising last-mile delivery challenges. To overcome some of the last-mile delivery costs, parcel lockers as a delivery option, can be an alternative solution. This study presents the Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem with Delivery Options (CVRPDO), which includes locker delivery. Methods: this problem is solved with An Adaptive Large Neighborhood Search (ALNS). The solution suggests some specific destroy and repair operators and integrates them with various selection schemes. The proposed method results are compared with the exact solution of the MIP model of the problem for validation. Results: Objective function values improved by 25%, 30%, 7%, 5%, and 6% for 1000, 800, 600, 400, and 200 customers, respectively, when using a 120-s ALNS runtime compared to the MIP model with a 3-h runtime. Conclusions: the CVRPDO problem involves creating a set of routes for ve-hicles that visit each customer at their delivery location or deliver their parcels to one of the lockers. These routes should respect the capacity of each vehicle and locker while minimizing the total routing costs and the number of utilized vehicles. The problem is resolved by ALNS algorithm, which outperformed the MIP model.

Parcel lockers have continuously growing in popularity as an alternative mode for last-mile delivery services due to their capability of effectively alleviating the risk of a delivery failure, increasing the possibility of delivery consolidation, and reducing the number of drop-off sites. However, poorly located of parcel lockers be less efficient. When determining the parcel locker location, inadequate consideration of uncertain demands can potentially increase the risk of unsatisfied demands. To remedy this issue, a robust optimization model is proposed in this paper with consideration of the demand uncertainties, including the large and small parcels to be received and sent. Not only can the collection locations be optimally determined, but so can the number of large and small parcel lockers for each location at the same time under various robust levels. Meanwhile, the sites whose demands are covered by one of the collection locations are also determined by the constraints of acceptable walking distance. A series of numerical experiments has been performed to evaluate the proposed model, with the main focus being on the solution robustness. Since the set of non-linear constraints are transformed into the linear counterparts, the robust solution can be obtained by the existing solvers within a reasonable time with moderate computing power. The experimental results also provide useful guidance for the practical application of the method, as slightly more conservative decision making can secure the solution robustness with only a marginal increase in costs.

The development of e-commerce has led to a surge in the number of online shopping parcels. However, given the lack of scale effect, last mile delivery is inefficient, expensive, and produces a considerable amount of carbon emissions, which has become an obstacle to the development of a sustainable economy. This work proposes a traveling salesman problem with carbon emission reduction in last mile delivery. The proposed problem aims to reduce the total costs and carbon emissions of last mile delivery by deciding on the allocation of parcel lockers while scheduling delivery routes. In addition, we take the customer self-collection intention into consideration and translate it into self-collection costs, which are included in the objective. An iterated local search (ILS) algorithm is proposed, and four new local search operators are designed to improve customer allocation. The proposed method is tested on a set of scattered and clustered instances, including a real-world instance. The computational results show the superiority and competitiveness of the proposed algorithm.

This study analyzed a last-mile fresh food delivery system for individuals in underserved communities. Five alternative delivery networks with various modes were considered: conventional trucks, electric cargo bikes, third-party deliveries by personal car, personalized ride transportation services, and parcel lockers. The total cost was formulated and optimized for each alternative. Then, the optimized results for the alternatives were compared. For our baseline values, numerical results showed that delivery by third party was the most cost-effective alternative in delivering fresh items, while truck deliveries ranked second. Personalized ride service and parcel locker delivery were more expensive than home-delivery services. Although more vehicles and frequent trips were needed for all alternatives as service area increased, home-delivery services had a moderate increase in total cost compared to other types. The personalized ride scenario was less influenced by changes in user value of waiting time. At a low demand density, truck operation may not be economically feasible. The study examined whether truck delivery could perform multiple tasks (i.e., delivering items to customers and fulfillment centers in a single delivery tour). Finally, mode shares for home deliveries were estimated when multiple delivery alternatives coexisted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To cope with the expected further growth in e-commerce and to be able to continue delivering at low costs, new concepts for the last-mile are needed. This paper reviews the literature and qualitatively investigates which factors influence the acceptance of four alternative place-of-delivery innovations in a business-to-consumer (B2C) context: (1) parcel lockers, (2) reception boxes, (3) trunk delivery, and (4) home access systems; Methods: The available literature was reviewed. Furthermore, 37 interviews were conducted and analyzed using the deductive category development method. In the following, abductive reasoning can derive detailed research models that may form the basis for future confirmative studies; Results: The research gains more detailed insights into how consumers perceive innovative last-mile place-of-delivery concepts. The study provides a clearer picture of what factors influence the intention to use such alternative services; Conclusions: The results can be used by logistics service providers and e-tailers through targeted communication efforts and lay the groundwork for further confirmatory research.

The e-commerce industry has been developing extremely dynamically for many years. This development was intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the research conducted by the authors of this paper, in Poland, during the pandemic, the number of delivered parcels increased 20–100%, depending on the courier company. The research of the authors of this article focused on the energy efficiency of the last mile, which is very important for the efficiency of the entire delivery process to customers. As the authors calculated, the last mile can consume over 70% of energy of the whole distribution channel. The article presents the results of research concerning the energy efficiency of deliveries performed by couriers and express companies in Poland. Two models of distribution used Poland have been compared—direct deliveries to final customers, and deliveries to parcel lockers. The research methods are interviews with the managers and couriers, analysis of the literature, and the simulation method. According to the results of the simulations performed by the authors, distribution with the use of parcels lockers can help reduce the consumption of fuel even by 74–87% per parcel or 36% per m3. Apart from this, the authors calculated the impact of scale of operations on the energy efficiency of the transport processes on the last mile, which is an indirect effect of the growth of the e-commerce market, caused by the pandemic. Based on the results of the original research of the authors, it can be assessed that the growth of the number of the delivered parcels during the pandemic resulted in the consumption of fuel per one parcel being reduced in some cases by over 36%. The novelty of the authors’ research is that the conducted simulations regarded not only the efficiency of the processes, but also the energy consumption in delivering parcels at the last mile and during the pandemic.

This research introduces a new variant of two-echelon vehicle routing problems inspired from the city logistics. The problem considers a two-echelon freight distribution network where customers are located at the second echelon while their goods are transported from the source in the first echelon to intermediate facilities, i.e., satellites, parcel lockers, and transshipment nodes. Customers can receive their goods that can be delivered by either city freighters or occasional drivers at their homes or are assigned to perform self-pickup at selected parcel lockers. The objective is to minimize total operational cost. We name the problem the Two-Echelon Vehicle Routing Problem with Time Windows, Intermediate Facilities, and Occasional Drivers (2E-VRPTW-IF-OD) and cast the problem as a mixed integer linear programming model and devise a hybrid adaptive large neighborhood search (HALNS) using, amongst others, set-partitioning like neighborhoods to provide solutions for newly generated 2E-VRPTW-IF-OD instances. Extensive experiments show high-quality performance of HALNS for solving two special cases of 2E-VRPTW-IF-OD. We further improve 24 best-known solutions for one of the special cases. Finally, we also derive various interesting managerial insights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the rise of e-commerce, there has been a significant increase in commercial transactions, playing a crucial role in driving economic growth. However, the delivery systems need help locating addresses and dealing with issues such as missed deliveries and exacerbating problems in last-mile logistics, such as traffic congestion and environmental impact. Parcel lockers offer an efficient solution to address these critical issues, but selecting an appropriate location is vital to ensure optimal service and improve overall logistic performance. For this motive, our work aims to define the best location for parcel lockers in Ireland, Dublin, using the Spherical Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (SFAHP). Spherical Fuzzy Sets (SFS) involve decision-makers hesitating in evaluating location selection. The integrated model is a suitable approach to avoid AHP deterministic disadvantages. Moreover, it is the first application of SFAHP to select parcel locker locations. The obtained results will benefit policymakers in making their strategic decisions on selecting parcel locker locations. • Evaluation of parcel lockers location selection by using fuzzy decision making model. • This is the first application of AHP in Spherical Fuzzy environment to solve parcel lockers location selection. • The adopted approach is a suitable tool to avoid decision makers hesitancy and ambiguity. • The adopted results are directly disposable for optimal selection of parcel lockers location. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stationary parcel lockers have established as useful delivery options, especially for those households where nobody is at home during typical parcel delivery times. However, having to move toward a locker, maybe after a tiring workday, can be inconvenient for customers. Mobile parcel lockers, especially when driving autonomously, can be positioned closer to the customers and thus seem as a logical next evolutionary step to reduce customer inconvenience. Until autonomous driving is finally realized, however, mobile parcel lockers depend on human-driven vehicles to reposition them, and this paper compares optional locker–vehicle–driver setups. In the most restrictive case, a parcel locker is fixedly mounted onto a vehicle and equipped with a dedicated driver. But a human driver can also be in charge of multiple lockers, so that the driver must travel, e.g., via public transport, between different lockers in order to reposition them. There are also first concepts without a fixed coupling of lockers that are only loaded onto their vehicles. Hence, a vehicle equipped with an automated handling mechanism can subsequently reposition multiple mobile locker modules between different parking positions. Based on the assumption that a given set of customers is to be serviced with a predefined service level, this paper provides a flexible heuristic multi-stage optimization approach that minimizes the total costs associated with each of these concepts. This algorithm is applied in a benchmark study to compare the alternative mobile parcel locker concepts, and our results reveal substantial differences among them. For instance, we show that mobile locker modules are very effective to provide better customer service (i.e., smaller walking distances and longer parking durations) at low cost • We benchmark five different mobile locker concepts against stationary lockers. • Mobile lockers with autonomous driving and human drivers are compared. • A heuristic framework that can be applied to all locker concepts is introduced. • Service expectations and their impact on locker resources are investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]