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Objective: This research aims to understand the motivations for SMEs from developed countries to engage in open innovation (OI) projects with partners in developing countries. Methodology: We adopted a qualitative approach and studied the case of 16 SMEs from Quebec that successfully carried out OI projects within African countries. Relevance: Despite the growing body of research on OI within SMEs, the international perspective of OI still needs to be explored. In particular, the context of developing countries has received limited attention, especially the motivations for SMEs from developed countries to undertake OI projects in developing countries. Main results: The results show that OI projects with African partners allow SMEs to integrate into African markets and acquire knowledge different from that of developed economies. These partnerships strengthen the overall organizational capacity of the SME beyond the acquisition of specific knowledge related to the innovation project. They also include social objectives to improve local communities living conditions. Theoretical contributions: By addressing the calls for research on OI within developing countries, this article expands the scope of OI in this context. It also contributes to the resource-based view theory by identifying integration within foreign networks as the main strategic resource, motivating SMEs from developed countries to initiate OI projects in developing countries. Managerial contributions: The study provides insights to SMEs from developed countries about the various reasons for implementing OI projects with partners in developing countries. It also offers them tailored advice to carry out such projects successfully. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Health Information Technologies (HIT) has a significant chance of enhancing the standard of medical treatment, but their acceptance faces major obstacles including low adoption rates and professional hesitancy. Limited research on HIT adoption, especially in poor nations, adds to this problem and clearly challenges health care managers and researchers. It emphasizes the need of knowing the elements influencing acceptance, choice, and usage of healthcare technology to improve user adoption willingness. Using past studies from several nations, this paper investigates the elements driving HIT adoption within the prism of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Using a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) under direction from the PRISMA framework guaranteed an open and exhaustive study. With eight publications compared to six from wealthy countries, the results expose a notable trend: emerging countries help more to promote HIT adoption research. Furthermore, the combination of TPB with other theories like the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) provides a whole framework for grasp the elements influencing HIT uptake. Core TPB components include subjective norms, attitude, and perceived behavioral control are well known in industrialized nations and supported by TAM’s perceived utility and simplicity of use, along with demographic elements, therefore stressing a user-centric approach. Research on emerging nations, particularly China, shows, on the other hand, a wide spectrum of variables on HIT adoption including personal, technical, social, and institutional ones. The results greatly improve our knowledge of HIT adoption seen from the TPB perspective and provide insightful analysis for legislators developing sensible plans for HIT implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is a systematic review that examines the relationship between financial development and carbon emissions. The findings show that empirical studies have produced varying and sometimes contradictory results. The research suggests that green financial instruments and eco-investments could help reduce emissions and promote sustainability. The study provides valuable insights into the relationship between financial development and carbon emissions, particularly in the context of developed and developing countries. Further research is needed to fully understand this relationship and its implications for environmental sustainability. [Extracted from the article]

This article provides a critical review of the relationship between the Environmental Performance Index (EPI), financial development, and economic growth. The study finds that environmental performance and sustainability are important for economic growth in industrialized countries, while sustainable financial systems and renewable energy can promote economic growth in developing nations. Government policies such as carbon costs and taxes, technology transfer programs, and green trade policies are crucial for sustainable economic growth. Trade globalization contributes to global economic growth and reduces poverty levels, but policymakers should prioritize environmental performance and sustainability in their economic policies. It is important to consider CO2 emissions and energy consumption when addressing climate change. Developing countries may face technological limitations when transitioning to renewable energy sources. The relationship between environmental performance, financial development, and economic growth in developing countries is complex and varies depending on the specific country and time frame. Policymakers should prioritize settling carbon costs and taxes, commercializing low-CO2 emissions technologies, reducing subsidies for nonrenewable energy, providing technology transfer programs, and creating a green trade policy to achieve sustainable development. Renewable energy and energy efficiency can support sustainable economic development and reduce CO2 emissions in developing countries, but effective policies and investments in green technology are needed to balance economic and environmental sustainability goals. [Extracted from the article]

Copyright of Ad-minister is the property of Universidad EAFIT and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The majority of U.S. states have set targets for renewable energy, but the prospects for meeting most of these goals hinge on the willingness of local governments to allow large‐scale renewable energy projects in their communities. In this paper, I investigate how exposure to lobbying by wind developers and the actions of neighboring jurisdictions inform the adoption and design of rules for siting commercial wind farms. Using data collected from 1603 counties in 23 states, I find local policymakers are more likely to enact wind ordinances when they have more time to interact with wind developers and when neighboring counties have adopted wind ordinances or approved the construction of wind farms. I also observe that counties tend to adopt more stringent rules when more wind farms have been built in neighboring counties. This evidence suggests that efforts to scale up renewable energy generation may encounter increasing resistance from local governments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change and the implementation of climate‐energy policies remains highly contentious in the United States. Prior research makes clear that the way polices are "framed" powerfully shapes how they are conceptualized. This article explores framing dynamics within a 2015–2016 case of subfederal climate‐energy policy conflict in the state of Illinois, which culminated with the passage of the Future Energy Jobs Act: legislation that contained significant environmental initiatives. I investigate this episode through a process tracing case study, incorporating qualitative content analysis and semi‐structured interviews with stakeholders. Results suggest that stakeholders strategically framed their policies in terms of economic benefits, and other aspects of a policy's design, as opposed to focusing on climate change or climate science. In this way, Illinois was able to pass a comprehensive climate‐energy policy with bipartisan support—an outcome infrequently seen in other states around the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supply chains can play a major role in reducing countries' safety and security threats; the role of network responsiveness offers insights into management exchanges responding to the preparedness of developed countries like Sweden. Illustrating the managing of overall supply chain capabilities among network responsiveness stems from the supply chain responsiveness concept. Several challenges to responsiveness prevent actors' networks from fully benefitting from coordination. A management approach is employed to explore the impact of network responsiveness on the supply chain as an overarching strategy for safety and security. The study suggests three different approaches which differ in their impact on the network's responsiveness: (i) an overall strategic planning approach, (ii) one integrated system approach for the overall response, and (iii) a coordination approach for managing the overall supply chain responsiveness strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

El planeta tierra se está calentando a una velocidad que los modelos matemáticos del premio nobel de economía William Nordhaus subestiman, y que han servido para retrasar la puesta en marcha de políticas radicales que frenen el calentamiento global (Keen, 2019). La temperatura promedio del planeta en la época preindustrial está siendo superada en 1.2 ºC, pero es necesario que no pase el umbral de los 1.5 o 2 ºC; para ello, es necesario reducir las emisiones de CO2 en 45 por ciento para el 2030 y llegar a cero emisiones en el 2050. Sin embargo, los 1.5 ºC se alcanzarán en 2030. Es decir, los efectos del calentamiento global como tormentas, sequías, incendios forestales, olas de calor e inundaciones costeras serán de dimensiones catastróficas. Por ejemplo, las inundaciones causadas por el aumento del nivel del mar podrían costar US$ 14 billones —12 ceros—, en todo el mundo, anualmente en 2100 si se alcanzan los 2 ºC (Hemer et al., 2019). El calentamiento del planeta proviene de las actividades económicas de producir, comerciar y consumir que están movidas por los combustibles fósiles, petróleo y carbón, que generan altas emisiones de CO2 y otros gases que calientan el clima.

Our article explores the contribution of local initiatives to the creation of path dependencies for energy transition in Germany and Japan in the face of resistance from entrenched incumbents at the national level. We use a process‐tracing methodology based partly on interviews with local participants. In particular, we explore the role of local initiatives in securing "socio‐political space" for the expansion of renewable energy (RE) and in embedding themselves in "ecosystems" of public and private institutions. German energy activists were more successful than their Japanese counterparts in expanding this space and creating positive feedback in part because they were able to build horizontal networks that anchored the energy transition firmly in local communities. Although problems with grid technology have led to retrenchment in both cases, Japanese activists' reliance on vertical networks has limited their ability to weather a backlash from national government and utility actors. Our study demonstrates the interaction of political, economic/technological, and legitimation paths to energy transition and highlights the importance of the latter two. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

En este artículo se presenta una metodología para evaluar la posición de los sistemas nacionales de innovación en el contexto internacional. Los datos de patentes, artículos científicos, población y producto interno bruto (PIB) de todos los países relativos a 1974, 1982, 1990, 1998, 2006, 2012 y 2014 constituyen la base para la aplicación de esta metodología de agrupación de países. Además de determinar un umbral entre los grupos (la división centro-periferia interpretada por los datos de ciencia y tecnología), es posible captar su movimiento impulsado por las revoluciones tecnológicas en el centro. El resultado es un marco dinámico, que supone un reto cada vez mayor para la implementación de procesos de convergencia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adoption of climate policies with visible, substantial costs for households is uncommon because of expected political backlash, but British Columbia's carbon tax and California's cap‐and‐trade program imposed such costs and still survived vigorous opposition. To explain these outcomes, this article tests hypotheses concerning policy design, framing, energy prices, and elections. It conducts universalizing and variation‐finding comparisons across three subcases in the two jurisdictions and uses primary sources to carry out process tracing involving mechanisms of public opinion and elite position‐taking. The article finds strong support for the timing of independent energy price changes, exogenous causes of election results, reducing the visibility of carbon pricing, and using public‐benefit justifications, as well as some support for making concessions to voters. By contrast, the effects of the use of revenue, industry exemptions/compensations, and making polluters pay are not uniform, because the effects of revenue use depend on how it is embedded in coalition building efforts and a middle path between exempting or compensating industry and burdening it appears to be more effective than pursuing just one or the other approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article revises the different positions adopted by the groups of countries in the negotiations of the last Round of the WTO –the Doha Round-. In spite of been several disagreements, we will point out the agricultural and non agricultural market access areas. The groups of countries in dispute refer to the developed countries –mainly the European Union and the United States- and the developing countries –among which are emphasized Brazil, South Africa and India-. Finally, in the final reflections we point out the importance of the OMC as a forum of commercial negotiations and the need of an effective south-south cooperation in specific areas, based on the harmonization of the interests among the poorest states.

El avance de la ciencia en el contexto global en el último medio siglo, se ha atribuido a los altos niveles de información disponible en Internet, transformable en conocimiento, innovación y productividad. De manera que, la disponibilidad y uso de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación (TIC) en los países industrializados se ha mostrado creciente y de complejidad. El presente trabajo tuvo como propósito realizar un análisis comparado del uso de las TIC entre seis países de América Latina y siete países desarrollados. Metodológicamente, el estudio realizó un análisis del estado del arte del uso de las TIC en América Latina, y una contrastación teórica y estadística. Los resultados muestran las fuertes brechas tecnológicas, de conocimiento, productividad e innovación en la región. El artículo concluye y señala como primera evidencia que las TIC son una razón causal del bajo nivel de productividad y calidad de vida en América Latina.

Studies show that women and girls consistently demonstrate higher levels of concern for the environment than men and boys. Separately, research also indicates that women officeholders pay particular attention to the issues prioritized by their female constituents. Interestingly, despite the consistency of the gender gap in attitudes to environmental issues the literature has paid scant attention to the role of women officeholders in the adoption of environmental policy. The goal of this paper was to start to address that lacuna. Using pooled cross‐sectional time series analyses of environmental standards in 18 Western parliamentary democracies (1990–2012), our initial findings indicate women officeholders are associated with the adoption of higher environmental standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Daena: International Journal of Good Conscience is the property of Spenta University Mexico and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The Nordic countries pursue ambitious energy transition goals through national energy policies and in the framework of Nordic cooperation. We propose that the transition is realistic only if it involves the public, private, and nongovernmental organization sectors as regulators, innovators, and advocates of relevant policies and solutions representing the multitude of interests involved. We examine these interests through Q methodological experiments, where 43 expert stakeholders' rank‐order statements concerning their preferred policy measures vis‐à‐vis the electric energy system. Factor analysis of these subjectively held views produces three distinct views. The first two enjoy strong inter‐Nordic support. The first view prioritizes market and grid development, and the second view prioritizes electric transport, and solar and wind power. The third, "Finnish" view seeks to enhance security of supply, also via microgrids, and prioritizes biofuels over electric transport. Examining the common ground among the three views, we find that enhanced cooperation requires reinforced stakeholder interaction and policy coordination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the more recognizable programs related to natural and sustainable food is the United States Department of Agriculture's National Organic Program. Although the robustness of the organic food market is difficult to contest, many debate the extent to which U.S. organic policy outcomes adequately serve consumers and the organic agriculture producers they rely on. This paper engages the debate from the perspective of certified organic producers. Drawing on the results of a nationwide survey of USDA‐certified producers, we first provide a snapshot of how producers assess the environmental, consumer, and market impacts of U.S. organic food policy. We then examine the extent to which organic producers' policy impact perceptions are associated with their alignment with an "organic ethos"—understood as producers' commitment to core organic principles and the organic movement. The paper highlights producers' values as perceptual filters and cognitive mechanisms that help shape producers' policy impacts perceptions, illustrating a contributing factor to the enduring nature of organic policy debates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Governance scholars have long championed the adaptive utility of decentralized management institutions, in part due to their ability to bring diverse stakeholders into decision‐making processes. However, research into the link between decentralization and participation often looks at policy design but bypasses important system feedbacks that shape sustained participation over time. To paint a more robust picture detailing how decentralization and participation are related, this paper uses a complex systems framework to explore interacting structural, operational, and cultural components of decentralized wildlife governance institutions in the United States and Botswana. Through this comparative analysis, I argue that the landscape of public participation in decentralized governance institutions appears to be significantly impacted by three factors: 1) how decentralization processes occurred, 2) where in the process of decision making participation is situated, and 3) perceptions of power distribution between groups with competing interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Entrevista a Fausto Izcaray para conocer la opinión de un investigador latinoamericano que habiendo realizado sus estudios en un país del Norte trabaja y aplica sus experiencias en una nación del Sur y por consiguiente tiene una óptica muy particular de mirar este desarrollo de las nuevas tecnologías u las ventajas y desventajas de su utilización en nuestro continente.

Objetivo: describir y analizar los determinantes estructurales y su relación con el índice de COP en países de desarrollo alto, mediano y bajo durante las últimas tres décadas. Materiales y métodos: estudio descriptivo realizado a partir de una revisión de la literatura internacional y nacional en bases de datos y páginas web. Resultados: se encontró un país con índice de COP elevado; un país con índice de COP moderado; 10 países con índice de COP bajo; y 10 países con índice de COP muy bajo. Los países de desarrollo alto y los países de desarrollo bajo se comportan de manera similar en tanto reportan índices de COP inferiores al promedio mundial sugerido por la OMS (2.4). Discusión y conclusiones: se concluye que los valores de COP están asociados fuertemente a factores macroeconómicos, como las políticas y servicios de cuidado de la salud disponibles para la población, más que a la clasificación de desarrollo del Banco Mundial. Los determinantes sociales están directamente relacionados con las políticas estructurales que afectan el bienestar social, la salud y la calidad de vida de la población.

El tema básico de este trabajo es la innovación tecnológica como vehículo de cambio social. Como se puede desprender de las obras citadas en el texto, se trata de una idea bien aceptada entre los científicos sociales. A partir de esa noción, se procura exponer algunas cuestiones relacionadas con la transferencia de tecnología entre sociedades desarrolladas y subdesarrolladas y la orientación de cambio que ocasionan. En el fondo, al definir a la tecnología como información organizada, se pretende explorar la idea de la transferencia de tecnología como un proceso de comunicación entre sociedades y llamar la atención sobre el hecho de que -en la etapa actual de la sociedad- la información tecnológica se separa de la máquina, es producida como una mercancía y, en esa condición, se convierte en capital. Detrás de ese fenómeno está la innovación tecnológica, representada por la introducción de los medios de almacenamiento, procesamiento, control y transmisión de información (en otras palabras, la informática y la telecomunicación). Debido a esa innovación, se configura un nuevo esquema de división internacional del trabajo que implica cambios de mayor significado cultural y político en cada tipo de sociedad y en el conjunto de ellas.

This qualitative study examines how administrative traditions and governance in two cities, New York City and Helsinki, have affected the interplay of public administration, the private sector, and citizens in climate change adaptation. The results show that both cities aim for an increased state‐market‐civil society interaction. However, their efforts have different points of departure and follow different trajectories. New York City's administration is within the Anglo‐American tradition of state‐market dualism, while the state‐market‐civil society interaction for adaptation is coordinated by newly created administrative organizations. This interaction has to be accommodated to the strong reliance on market mechanisms. Helsinki's administration has its roots in the welfare state administration with a strong role of the public administration. Increased state‐market‐civil society interaction results in a reduced influence of the public sector and the reliance on ad hoc projects and informal modes of cross‐sectoral cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

En este artículo se presenta una discusión, desde diferentes miradas, sobre cómo ha evolucionado la desigualdad de los ingresos. Se considera la desigualdad global del ingreso sobre la base de múltiples evidencias recientes, que señalan una relativa estabilidad del elevado nivel de desigualdad. Los principales cambios surgen de los movimientos de China y la India. En los países desarrollados, la tendencia ha sido hacia mayores niveles de desigualdad en los últimos tres decenios. También ha sido así en los países en desarrollo, con la excepción de América Latina en el último decenio. Esta región se analiza en detalle; en términos globales, los ingresos se volvieron más igualitarios entre 2002 y 2014, debido fundamentalmente a la caída de la desigualdad dentro de los países. La desigualdad se ha reducido en la mayoría de ellos, aunque las últimas mediciones dan indicios de una detención en este proceso de descenso. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This article investigates whether different political institutions such as executives, legislatures, parties, party systems, judiciaries, decentralization, constitutionalism, and referendums across 24 Western democracies are venues for debate across five individual morality policies. Using data since 1945, the article compares three theories of morality policy—(1) Policy Type leading to different institutional venues; (2) Two Worlds of religious/secular party systems; and (3) U.S./European exceptionalism. In order, the most frequently debated issues are abortion, same sex marriage, euthanasia, stem cells/assisted reproductive technology (ART), and capital punishment. There is considerable variation in the institutions and country groups that debate them although fewer differences in the Two Worlds model. Abortion, euthanasia, and same sex marriage are the most convergent issues across institutions, party systems, and country groupings while capital punishment and stem cells/ART show the most diverse patterns of deliberation. The general Policy Type model of morality policy is upheld, but varies institutionally by specific issues. The Two Worlds model is of some importance, but only on three issues. There also are regional differences between the United States, Europe, and non‐European democracies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advancement of science in the global context in the last half century has been attributed to high levels of information available online, which were transformed in knowledge, innovation and productivity. Thus, the availability and use of information and communications technology (ICT) has been growing and becoming complex in industrialized countries. This work aimed to perform a comparative analysis of the use of ICT among six countries in Latin America and seven developed countries. Methodologically, the study carried out an analysis of the state of the art of the use of ICT in Latin America and a theoretical and statistical verification. The results showed strong gaps in technology, knowledge, productivity and innovation in the region. The article concluded and shown as a first evidence that ICT was a causal reason for the low level of productivity and quality of life in Latin America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective:To analyze the risk factors associated to overweight and obesity in freshmen of a public university in the Center-West region of Brazil. Methods: A case-control study comprising 1,465 adolescents, identifying 106 cases (Body Mass Index (BMI)> = 85th percentile of National Center for Health Statistics -NCHS) and 233 controls (BMI > 5th and < 85th percentile of NCHS). Interviews were made to collect information on socioeconomic data, eating habits, physical activity and health habits. Information on parents' height and weight were obtained over the telephone. Results: Non-conditional multivariate and hierarchical logistic regression showed that overweight and obesity were positively associated to males (odds ratio (OR) 2.25, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.37-3.69), mother's BMI (OR 3.45, 95% CI 2.16-5.8), overweight in childhood (OR 2.81, 95% CI 1.62-4.85), consumption of fruits less than once a day (OR 1.84, 95% CI 1.05-3.21) and the habit of weight-loss dieting (OR 6.33, 95% CI 2.68-14.94). Conclusion: Results emphasize the need for educational interventions at early ages involving the whole family to control the excess of weight.Objetivo: Analizar los factores de riesgo asociados con el sobrepeso y la obesidad en estudiantes de primer curso de una universidad pública en la zona centro-oeste de Brasil. Métodos: Estudio de casos-control en 1465 adolescentes, identificando 106 casos (IMC = índice de masa corporal> percentil 85 del Centro Nacional de Estadística Sanitaria (NCHS)) y 233 controles (IMC > percentil 5,< percentil 85 de NCHS). Se realizaron entrevistas para recopilar datos sobre condiciones socio-económicas, hábitos alimentarios, actividad física y hábitos saludables. Se obtuvieron por vía telefónica los datos sobre el peso y la talla de los padres. Resultados: El análisis de regresión logística multivariable y jerárquica, no condicional, mostró que el sobrepeso y la obesidad se asociaban de forma positiva al sexo masculino (odds ratio (OR) 2,25, con un intervalo de confianza (IC) del 95% de 1,37-3,69), al IMC materno (OR 3,45, con IC 95% de 2,16-5,8), al sobrepeso en la infancia (OR 2,81, IC 95% de 1,62-4,85), consumo de frutas inferior a una vez al día (OR 1,84, IC 95% de 1,05-3,21) y el hábito de dietas de adelgazamiento (OR 6,33, IC 95% de 2,68-14,94). Conclusión: Los resultados refuerzan la necesidad de intervenciones educativas en edades tempranas, implicando a toda la familia, para controlar el exceso de peso.

El trabajo analizó el comportamiento socioeconómico en la última década de la economía mundial en diferentes naciones y períodos. El estudio se realizó desde varias aristas ya que el fenómeno es multidimensional y multifactorial. El análisis de las desigualdades entre países reveló que los cambios en la composición de los mismos desde principios de siglo hasta la actualidad son escasos. Se concluye que la crisis económica a nivel mundial sigue agudizándose.

Copyright of Observatorio Medioambiental is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Private health insurance is playing an increasing role in both high- and low-income countries, yet is poorly understood by researchers and policy-makers. This paper shows that the distinction between private and public health insurance is often exaggerated since well regulated private insurance markets share many features with public insurance systems. It notes that private health insurance preceded many modern social insurance systems in western Europe, allowing these countries to develop the mechanisms, institutions and capacities that subsequently made it possible to provide universal access to health care. We also review international experiences with private insurance, demonstrating that its role is not restricted to any particular region or level of national income. The seven countries that finance more than 20% of their health care via private health insurance are Brazil, Chile, Namibia, South Africa, the United States, Uruguay and Zimbabwe. In each case, private health insurance provides primary financial protection for workers and their families while public health-care funds are targeted to programmes covering poor and vulnerable populations. We make recommendations for policy in developing countries, arguing that private health insurance cannot be ignored. Instead, it can be harnessed to serve the public interest if governments implement effective regulations and focus public funds on programmes for those who are poor and vulnerable. It can also be used as a transitional form of health insurance to develop experience with insurance institutions while the public sector increases its own capacity to manage and finance health-care coverage.

En este trabajo se presentan los resultados de las proyecciones de la población de los países que en 2003 contaban con más de 10 millones de habitantes, adscritos en tres grupos de países según niveles del PIB per cápita en 2001: países desarrollados, países en transición y países en vías de desarrollo. En el caso de estos últimos, se forman dos subgrupos: los de nivel medio y los de nivel bajo. Se hace referencia a algunos volúmenes de población y al comportamiento de la tasa de crecimiento de la población, de la fecundidad y de la migración. En cuanto a los países en vías de desarrollo, el énfasis se pone, además de los volúmenes poblacionales, en las heterogeneidades en los niveles de la fecundidad, migración y mortalidad. Con base en este recuento, se duda que se cumplan las metas sobre la estabilización de la población hacia el 2050 o 2060 y se llama la atención acerca de la necesidad de vincular las esferas demográficas conlas económicas, sociales y financieras.

Strong national health research systems are needed to improve health systems and attain better health. For developing countries to indigenize health research systems, it is essential to build research capacity. We review the positive features and weaknesses of various approaches to capacity building, emphasizing that complementary approaches to human resource development work best in the context of a systems and long-term perspective. As a key element of capacity building, countries must also address issues related to the enabling environment, in particular: leadership, career structure, critical mass, infrastructure, information access and interfaces between research producers and users. The success of efforts to build capacity in developing countries will ultimately depend on political will and credibility, adequate financing, and a responsive capacity-building plan that is based on a thorough situational analysis of the resources needed for health research and the inequities and gaps in health care. Greater national and international investment in capacity building in developing countries has the greatest potential for securing dynamic and agile knowledge systems that can deliver better health and equity, now and in the future.

A disease is controlled if, by means of a public policy, the circulation of an infectious agent is restricted below the level that would be sustained by individuals acting independently to control the disease. A disease is eliminated if it is controlled sufficiently to prevent an epidemic from occurring in a given geographical area. Control and elimination are achieved locally, but a disease can only be eradicated if it is eliminated everywhere. Eradication is plainly a more demanding goal, but it has two advantages over control. First, the economics of eradication can be very favourable when eradication not only reduces infections but also avoids the need for vaccinations in future. Indeed, when eradication is feasible, it will either pay to control it to a fairly low level or to eradicate it. This suggests that, from an economics perspective, diseases that are eliminated in high-income countries are prime candidates for future eradication efforts. Second, the incentives for countries to participate in an eradication initiative can be strong; indeed they can be even stronger than an international control programme. Moreover, high-income countries typically benefit so much that they will be willing to finance elimination in developing countries. Full financing of an eradication effort by nation-states is not always guaranteed, but it can be facilitated by a variety of means. Hence, from the perspective of economics and international relations, eradication has a number of advantages over control. The implications for smallpox and polio eradication programmes are discussed.

The migration of health workers within and between countries is a growing concern worldwide because of its impact on health systems in developing and developed countries alike. Policy decisions need to be made at the national, regional and international levels to manage more effectively this phenomenon, but those decisions will be effective and correctly implemented and evaluated only if they are based on adequate statistical data. Most statistics on the migration of health-care workers are neither complete nor fully comparable, and they are often underused, limited (because they often give only a broad description of the phenomena) and not as timely as required. There is also a conflict between the wide range of potential sources of data and the poor statistical evidence on the migration of health personnel. There are two major problems facing researchers who wish to provide evidence on this migration: the problems commonly faced when studying migration in general, such as definitional and comparability problems of "worker migrations" and those related to the specific movements of the health workforce. This paper presents information on the uses of statistics and those who use them, the strengths and limitations of the main data sources, and other challenges that need to be met to obtain good evidence on the migration of health workers. This paper also proposes methods to improve the collection, analysis, sharing, and use of statistics on the migration of health workers.

Building health research expertise in developing countries often requires personnel to receive training beyond national borders. For research funding agencies that sponsor this type of training, a major goal is to ensure that trainees return to their country of origin: attaining this objective requires the use of proactive strategies. The strategies described were developed under the extramural acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) International Training and Research Program (AITRP) funded by the Fogarty International Center (FIC) at the National Institutes of Health, United States. This programme supports universities in the United States that provide research training to scientists from developing countries to enable them to address the global epidemic of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/AIDS and the related tuberculosis (TB) epidemic. This paper describes the strategies employed to discourage brain drain by the principle investigators (PIs) of five of the longest-funded AITRPs (funded for 15 years). Long-term trainees in these programmes spent from 11 to 96 months (an average of 26 months) studying. Using scientific, political and economic strategies that address brain drain issues, PIs working in AITRPs have attained an average rate of return home for their trainees of 80%.

This paper examines the policy context of the rise in the international mobility and migration of nurses. It describes the profile of the migration of nurses and the policy context governing the international recruitment of nurses to five countries: Australia, Ireland, Norway, the United Kingdom, and the United States. We also examine the policy challenges for workforce planning and the design of health systems infrastructure. Data are derived from registries of professional nurses, censuses, interviews with key informants, case studies in source and destination countries, focus groups, and empirical modelling to examine the patterns and implications of the movement of nurses across borders. The flow of nurses to these destination countries has risen, in some cases quite substantially. Recruitment from lower-middle income countries and low-income countries, as defined by The World Bank, dominate trends in nurse migration to the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the United States, while Norway and Australia, primarily register nurses from other high-income countries. Inadequate data systems in many countries prevent effective monitoring of these workforce flows. Policy options to manage nurse migration include: improving working conditions in both source and destination countries, instituting multilateral agreements to manage the flow more effectively, and developing compensation arrangements between source and destination countries. Recommendations for enhancements to workforce data systems are provided.

Opportunity is the driving force of migration. Unsatisfied demands for higher education and skills, which have been created by the knowledge-based global economy, have generated unprecedented opportunities in knowledge-intensive service industries. These multi-trillion dollar industries include information, communication, finance, business, education and health. The leading industrialized nations are also the focal points of knowledge-intensive service industries and as such constitute centres of research and development activity that proactively draw in talented individuals worldwide through selective immigration policies, employment opportunities and targeted recruitment. Higher education is another major conduit of talent from less-developed countries to the centres of the knowledge-based global economy. Together career and educational opportunities drive "brain drain and recirculation". The departure of a large proportion of the most competent and innovative individuals from developing nations slows the achievement of the critical mass needed to generate the enabling context in which knowledge creation occurs. To favourably modify the asymmetric movement and distribution of global talent, developing countries must implement bold and creative strategies that are backed by national policies to: provide world-class educational opportunities, construct knowledge-based research and development industries, and sustainably finance the required investment for these strategies. Brazil, China and India have moved in this direction, offering world-class education in areas crucial to national development, such as biotechnology and information technology, paralleled by investments in research and development. As a result, only a small proportion of the most highly educated individuals migrate from these countries, and research and development opportunities employ national talent and even attract immigrants.

Of the 175 million people (2.9% of the world's population) living outside their country of birth in 2000, 65 million were economically active. The rise in the number of people migrating is significant for many developing countries because they are losing their better-educated nationals to richer countries. Medical practitioners and nurses represent a small proportion of the highly skilled workers who migrate, but the loss for developing countries of human resources in the health sector may mean that the capacity of the health system to deliver health care equitably is significantly compromised. It is unlikely that migration will stop given the advances in global communications and the development of global labour markets in some fields, which now include nursing. The aim of this paper is to examine some key issues related to the international migration of health workers and to discuss strategic approaches to managing migration.

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Resumen El aumento del comercio internacional de bienes y servicios intermedios hace más compleja la relación entre comercio y empleo. Mediante un modelo de contenido factorial insumo-producto aplicado a 39 países, el autor calcula el empleo (nacional y extranjero) generado por las exportaciones, las importaciones, el contenido en importaciones de las exportaciones, el contenido en exportaciones de las importaciones y el contenido en importaciones de terceros países de las importaciones. En 2009 el intercambio de bienes intermedios implicó 88 millones de empleos (el 14 por ciento del total de empleo generado por el comercio internacional), y el contenido en importaciones de las exportaciones, 44 millones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

El presente artículo, que forma parte de un estudio más amplio, analiza las relaciones entrre el proceso de globalización de la producción y la comercialización con los cambios en el sistema educativo. En particular, hace una crítica del capital humano y de las tesis del Banco Mundial, mostrando que algunos elementos que pueden tener validez en los países desarrollados se convierten en meras racionalizaciones de la desigualdad en los países en desarrollo.This article, which forms part of a wider study, analyzes the relation ships between the process of globalization of production and trade and changes in the educational system. In particular, it makes a critique of human capital theory and of the theses of the World Bank, demonstrating that some elements that may have validity in the deve loped countries are converted into mere rationalizations for inequality in the developing countries.