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The aim of this paper is to identify and develop key indicators related to beach and marine litter using land and coastal areas as sources to diagnose the current situation in Tunisia. Based on the results, recommendations have been developed to support the decision-making process. In this study, three main indicators and twelve sub-indicators were developed and classified into driving factors and resulting situations. These were developed based on (1) a large literature and participative approach and (2) beach litter monitoring campaigns carried out on five beaches from the north to the south during three years and different seasons using the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR) method for beach litter monitoring on 100 m. The results show that plastic represented the main littered item in coastal areas and beaches in Tunisia (ranging between 54% and 70%). In addition, another one of the most littered items was packaging, which ranged between 54% and 74% of the total waste. The findings highlight that tourism and recreational activities represent the main source of items identified (between 89% and 95%). Furthermore, the amount of litter identified was relatively important during a low tourism period in comparison to the period from the preseason preparation to the end of the high season when cleaning operations can have a great impact. Finally, the findings indicate that the average quantities of plastic per kilometer in Gammarth, Hammamet, and Sousse tourism areas were much lower than in Sfax and Gabès. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The demand for comprehensive biodiversity assessments is increasing through the implementation of the ecosystem-based approach to management (EBM) of marine resources. Regional sea conventions such as the Oslo-Paris Commission (OSPAR) strive to implement EBM by developing an extensive status assessment program for the marine environment. Demersal fish communities are one ecosystem feature assessed by OSPAR through several ecological indicators. One of these indicators assesses the recovery in the population abundance of sensitive fish species, which was initially developed to report on the status of the sensitive fish community as a whole. However, for national reporting obligations, contracting parties of OSPAR (particularly for EU member states reporting to the Marine Strategy Framework Directive) prefer to have assessments for individual species. The previous indicator assessment relied on a suite of demersal fish species, which were caught frequently in scientific groundfish surveys, but did not provide assessment results for rare species caught in low frequencies. This study introduces a new assessment approach, the Binomial Occurrence Assessment (BOA), for the FC-1 indicator now renamed the “Recovery of sensitive fish species”, by applying the binomial distribution to relative occurrence data from scientific fisheries surveys. BOA uses occurrences in a reference period to determine boundaries for the expected occurrences in the recent (six year) assessment period of each survey. Significant changes in occurrence between the reference and assessment period, i.e. declines or recoveries, can then be detected when the observed occurrences in the assessment period fall outside of these boundaries. Methods to integrate the assessment results across multiple surveys are explored and compared since data on occurrences for fish species are available from more than one fisheries survey in each marine region considered by OSPAR. A case study on the sensitive demersal fish species in the North Sea exemplifies the applicability of BOA. Furthermore, assessments by BOA are compared to data from analytical stock assessments for those data-rich sensitive species that can support both approaches. Despite some shortcomings of BOA, such as the inability to detect declines of very rare species and the potential for occurrence metrics to differ from abundance metrics, the BOA allows an assessment of the status of a wide suite of fish species throughout the entire OSPAR region. The low data requirements of BOA allow its generic application to any other monitoring program that has captured occurrences of single species or species suites in the past and present.

IntroductionThe European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) is a biogenic reef former, internationally recognised as threatened and declining in the NE Atlantic by OSPAR and one of the focal species in nature inclusive designs in offshore windfarms in The Netherlands. Oyster reefs offer habitat to many other benthic hard substrate and fish species and provide ecosystem functions such as shelter and feeding grounds. European flat oyster reefs have disappeared from the Dutch North Sea in the early 1900s due to overfishing and diseases but are now subject of nature restoration under the Dutch Marine Strategy.MethodSince 2018, pilot projects have started in the Dutch North Sea to restore European flat oysters at suitable locations, such as offshore windfarms or natural reefs, which are protected from bottom trawling. We compared European flat oyster performance in five pilot projects, using translocated adult oysters sourced from Ireland, Norway, and the Netherlands. The aim of this research was to assess the performance of translocated oysters between pilots, to assess the installation and monitoring techniques, and to come forward with recommendations for future pilot projects.ResultsWe found that translocation of both foreign sourced flat oyster populations (Ireland and Norway in nearshore and offshore areas) and local oysters (in nearshore areas) result in good oyster performance. Oysters were able to grow (max 3.67 mm/month) and reproduce (larvae present) in their new environment. We found that growth rate was explained by origin and average water temperature, to a lesser extent by number of months, location and salinity and not to other environmental factors such as pH and O2. Correlations between growth and environmental conditions need to be considered with caution, since not all pilots were sampled just before and after the growing season. Oysters were Bonamia-negative at the start and end of the pilots, indicating that the offshore Dutch North Sea is still Bonamia-free.Discussion, conclusions, recommendationsBy the year 2050 more than ten new offshore farms will be constructed in the Dutch North Sea and some sites will be suitable for oyster restoration. We conclude that local and foreign sourced oysters performed well at all locations. Based on the success and failure of the different outplacement and monitoring techniques, we provide recommendations on good practice for the future, including developing standardized monitoring protocols. This will enable better inter-site comparisons in upcoming oyster restoration pilots.

Due to various intergovernmental agreements, marine managers must establish marine conservation measures to prevent the destruction of conservation-relevant benthic habitats e.g. Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems (VME). To aid this process, international “lists” of indicator species and habitats are created based on various conservation “criteria”. As these lists are both generalised and under development, there is a need to create comparable (management) regional lists to ensure regional relevance and to propose new international “list candidates”. This study provides a method to assess management region relevant (hereafter “regional”)/new benthic biotopes for conservation-relevance. Quantitative criteria-linked descriptors (e.g. species richness, predicted area occupancy, etc) are used to rank biotopes, enabling a comparison between listed and new biotopes. This highlights comparatively high-ranking new biotopes as potentially conservation-relevant. In a Norwegian case study, applied to the Barents Sea management region using data from the MAREANO programme, the criteria from three international frameworks (EBSA/Azores, FAO/VME, OSPAR/Texel Faial) are assessed with descriptors obtainable from existing or future baseline datasets (video survey data, biotope classifications, and predictive biotope maps). Here, the method correctly ranks existing listed biotopes highly but it also identifies, for example, a previously unlisted biotope as potentially conservation relevant (Cucumaria sea cucumbers, Eucratea bryozoans, and Thuiaria hydroids on coarse bottoms with highly variable conditions). This biotope is now accepted as having regional significance warranting national conservation attention. The dominant bryozoan has also since been listed as a FAO VME indicator within ICES/NEAFC. Although demonstrated in a region with an outstanding dataset, the method is transferable to anywhere with partial baseline data that can inform biotope classification.

Seafloor sediments have been defined as sinks for microplastics in the marine environment and could therefore represent suitable matrices for their long-term monitoring. On a regional aspect, the adoption of a common indicator for microplastics in seafloor sediments would allow regional monitoring and assessments through international frameworks such as OSPAR. This study presents the findings of a research and development project monitoring the occurrence and abundance of microplastics in UK seafloor sediments for the period 2013-2021, supporting the development of a national monitoring programme for microplastics in seafloor sediments for the UK (England and Wales). A fast-screening technique based on Nile Red staining of polymers coupled with µ-FTIR was applied and validated using µ-FTIR-FPA. Microplastic particles were detected in all 189 sediment samples from 15 stations selected around the UK for each investigated year (2013 - 2021). Microplastic concentrations (20 – 5000 µm) ranged from 133 – 6,933 particles kg-1 dry weight sediment for 2020-2021. Microplastics mainly consisted of fragments (73%), fibres (19%) and spheres (8%). Plastic fragments ranged from 46 to 3276 µm and plastic fibres from 300 to 1731 µm in length with a mean diameter of 16 µm. Single particle analysis using µ-FTIR indicated a prevalence of Rayon, PP, Rayon/Nylon/Polyester blends, Rubber, PS, PE, PA, PVC, Acrylic, EMAA and PET. Fragments were mainly white in colour (46%) followed by brown (38%), black (1%), blue (1%) and orange (1%). Fibres were mainly white in colour (57%) followed by black (14%), orange (14%) and red (14%). A trend assessment at the UK regional seas levels indicated little visual evidence of any trends in the abundance of microplastics over time in any of the regional seas – with the possible exception of the Northern North Sea with a reduction in abundance over time for the time-period 2013-2021.

Identifying vulnerable marine habitats is fundamental to promote evidence-based management and a sustainable use of our oceans. Although progress in the mapping of marine benthic habitats has been made, complex ecosystems such as submarine canyons remain largely unexplored, hampering evidence-based management from taking place in these ubiquitous features worldwide. Data from a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) survey in the upper São Vicente Submarine Canyon in southwestern Portugal from 2011, was analysed to carry out a comprehensive assessment of megabenthic habitats, particularly those of conservation concern occuring between 90 and 560 m. Underwater videos from three exploratory dives, covering a total of 8.8 kilometers, were analyzed through multivariate and visual assessments, and the identified habitats were assessed against a set of criteria derived from current definitions of priority habitats. Thirteen potential priority habitats were characterized, out of which four distinct “coral gardens” and one “deep-sea sponge aggregation” are aligned with OSPAR definitions of priority habitats, and one corresponds to the habitat of a strictly protected sea urchin listed in the Habitats Directive. Three circalittoral sponge aggregations were also suggested based on the abundance of indicator species. The specific composition and diversity of priority habitats as described here, has not yet been described in any other canyon in the NE Atlantic region. Depth was revealed to be particularly important for the distribution of habitats, followed by relief and substratum. The approach presented in this study contributes to improve the understanding about submarine canyons, which is paramount to implement knowledge-based protection measures. Furthermore, it can be used to support future mapping efforts of deep-sea environments such as submarine canyons.

Marine litter is a global problem that requires soon management and design of mitigation strategies. Marine litter monitoring is an essential step to assess the abundances, distributions, sinks and hotspots of pollution as well as the effectiveness of mitigation measures. However, these need to be time and cost-efficient, fit for purpose and context, as well as provide a standardized methodology suitable for comparison among surveys. In Europe, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) provides a structure for the effective implementation of long-term monitoring. For beaches, the well-established 100 m OSPAR macrolitter monitoring exists. However, this method requires a high staff effort and suffers from a high spatio-temporal variability of the results. In this study, we test the potential of aerial drones or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) together with a Geographic Information System approach for semi-automatic classification of meso- (1–25 mm) and macrolitter (>25 mm) at four beaches of the southern Baltic Sea. Visual screening of drone images in recovery experiments (50 m2 areas) at 10 m height revealed an accuracy of 99%. The total accuracy of classification using object-based classification was 45–90% for the classification with four classes and 50–66% for the classification with six classes, depending on the algorithm and flight height used. On 100 m beach monitoring transects the accuracy was between 39–74% (4 classes) and 25–74% (6 classes), with very low kappa values, indicating that the GIS classification method cannot be regarded as a reliable method for the detection of litter in the Southern Baltic. In terms of cost-efficiency, the drone method showed high reproducibility and moderate accuracy, with much lower flexibility and quality of data than a comparable spatial-OSPAR method. Consequently, our results suggest that drone based monitoring cannot be recommended as a replacement or complement existing methods in southern Baltic beaches. However, drone monitoring could be useful at other sites and other methods for image analysis should be tested to explore this tool for fast-screening of non-accessible sites, fragile ecosystems, floating litter or heavily polluted beaches.

In the North Sea, many oil and gas fields will reach the end of their productivity and their associated structures will be decommissioned. OSPAR decision 98/3 prescribes removal of all disused offshore structures as the only acceptable decommissioning option. This policy is the legacy of the 1995 Brent Spar incident, which resulted in the current dominant discourse of 'Hands off the Oceans,' ruling out the conversion of oil and gas rigs into artificial reefs (Rigs-to-Reefs (RtR)). The shift from a conservation to a restoration paradigm could open up the RtR debate. In this paper, a discourse analysis is carried out to discern whether and how ideas about RtR and ecosystem restoration are articulated to challenge the dominant 'Hands off the Oceans' discourse and thereby bring about change in North Sea decommissioning policy. A discourse analytic framework is applied to elucidate whether an 'RtR as Restoration' discourse can be distinguished and how competing claims are presented in the various storylines. Our analysis shows an 'RtR as Restoration' discourse, consisting of four different storylines. Given the fragmented nature of this discourse, the 'RtR as Restoration' discourse will not overcome the dominant 'Hands off the Oceans' discourse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Descriptor 8 of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) (Directive 2008/56/EC) addresses the good environmental status with regard to pollution of marine waters by chemical contaminants. Commission decision (EU) 2017/848 lays down the criteria and methodological standards on good environmental status of marine waters. Member States, in regional or subregional cooperation, shall establish lists of relevant contaminants beside those already covered by the Water Framework Directive (WFD). To provide information on emerging contaminants in marine biota, the German Environmental Specimen Bank (ESB) has compiled data of blue mussels and eelpouts from coastal sites in the North and Baltic Seas. Substances identified by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) as of emerging concern for the marine environment have been used as a starting point. Results and conclusions: The study presents data of 19 emerging flame retardants and degradation products, 40 per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and three cyclic volatile methylsiloxanes (cVMS). Among the emerging flame retardants, only Dec 602 was detected in all samples of 2015. Dec 604, Cl10-antiDP, 1,5-DPMA, EH-TBB, PBEB, TBP-AE, BATE, BTBPE and HBBz were constantly < limit of quantification (LOQ). Time trends were barely detected. Legacy PBDE still dominates in most samples. PFAS concentrations were usually higher in samples from the North Sea sites compared to samples from the Baltic Sea. PFOS dominated in most samples. Increasing trends over time were detected for PFNA, PFDA and PFDoDA at the Baltic Sea site and for PFDA at one North Sea site. Concentrations of the cVMS D4, D5 and D6 were below the detection limit at the ESB sampling sites. Based on the results, it should be considered to include the emerging flame retardants DP and Dec 602 and the long-chain perfluoroalkyl substances PFNA, PFDA, PFUnDA and PFDoDA in a regular monitoring in the North and Baltic Seas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of marine litter monitoring, reporting the weight of beached litter can contribute to a better understanding of pollution sources and support clean-up activities. However, the litter scaling task requires considerable effort and specific equipment. This experimental study proposes and evaluates three methods to estimate beached litter weight from aerial images, employing different levels of litter categorization. The most promising approach (accuracy of 80 %) combined the outcomes of manual image screening with a generalized litter mean weight (14 g) derived from studies in the literature. Although the other two methods returned values of the same magnitude as the ground-truth, they were found less feasible for the aim. This study represents the first attempt to assess marine litter weight using remote sensing technology. Considering the exploratory nature of this study, further research is needed to enhance the reliability and robustness of the methods. • Three methods to estimate macro-litter weight from drone aerial images. • The methods are applicable on both manual and automated litter detection. • Weight estimations were of the same magnitude of the ground-truth values. • Best achievements obtained adopting a generalized mean litter weight of 14 g. • Improvement of drone-based litter surveys in coastal and riverine environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropogenic marine litter (AML) is a global environmental concern. One of the most conspicuous effects of AML is beach litter accumulation, the distribution of which is typically heterogenous. Little information is available on the potential effects of coastal topographic features on litter dispersal. We analysed the abundance, composition, and sources of beach litter on the East coast of England in relation to the presence of coastal groyne structures. Six beaches were surveyed in autumn and winter 2021 using the OSPAR methodology for monitoring beach litter. Litter abundance was lower on beaches with groynes present, which could infer that groynes deflect or bury AML. The presence of groynes had no significant effect on the composition/sources of beach litter. Single-use plastic packaging, fishing waste, and sewage-related debris were the largest contributors of beach litter in this region. Our findings indicate that man-made topographic features may affect marine litter dispersal and coastal accumulation. • Coastal groynes trap sediment transported by longshore drift, increasing accretion. • Litter abundance was lower on beaches with groynes compared to those without. • Topographic features may affect marine litter dispersal and coastal accumulation. • Single-use plastic, fishing waste, and sewage debris were the largest contributors. • The findings will help inform implementation of litter mitigation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • We developed the indicator "Changes in plankton diversity" (PH3) to assess Pelagic Habitats. • This pilot study used three coastal time-series of phytoplankton data in French waters. • Four indices were selected to evaluate the phytoplankton community composition. • Integration with other pelagic indicators will improve future regional assessments. Abstract The Marine Strategy Framework Directive requires EU Member States to assess the Good Environmental Status (GES) of their marine waters in a coherent and strategic manner. For the regional assessment of biodiversity, the OSPAR Intersessional Coordination Group of Biodiversity Assessment and Monitoring (ICG-COBAM) provides substantial advice. Through expert working groups, phytoplankton indicators are currently being developed to measure the state and the change in pelagic diversity, to quantify food web dynamics and to measure the extent of eutrophication impacts. We developed a multi-metric indicator that is compliant with the common OSPAR indicator "Changes in plankton diversity" (PH3). The aim was to describe the structure of the phytoplankton community (alpha diversity) and to detect significant temporal changes (beta diversity) to evaluate the health of pelagic habitats. In this pilot study, we used three coastal time-series in the Western Channel and the north of the Bay of Biscay (North Atlantic, France) to test the efficiency and the performance of several existing diversity indices. We validated two alpha diversity indices, namely the Menhinick Index (D) and the Hulburt Index (δ), based on their complementary ecological information, their strong relationship with habitat characteristics, and their relative ease of interpretation for stakeholders. Temporal shifts or rate of change in community structure were detected by the Local Contributions to Beta Diversity index (LCBD; a beta diversity measure). For the years where significantly high LCBD values were found, the Importance Value Index (IVI) was calculated to potentially identify the taxa (genus) responsible for the "unusual" community structure. For example, at the Ouest Loscolo site in 2008, an elevated LCBD (0.45) coincided with a high dominance value (Hulburt's Index) caused by the occurrence of a monospecific bloom of Leptocylindrus spp. (IVI = 73%) in July (2.22 × 106 cells L−1) and October (8 × 106 cells L−1). In this way, PH3 informs on different aspects of phytoplankton diversity from a community to a genus level. At the current stage of development, however, PH3 acts as a "surveillance" rather than an operational indicator since the relationship to GES is not directly tracked. In the future, by additional testing of PH3 and extending the geographical scope, the robustness of the assessment could be further determined across the OSPAR Maritime Area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The data and results of the UK second application of the OSPAR Common Procedure (COMP) for eutrophication were used as a case study to develop a generic system (i) to evaluate an observational network from a multi-variable point of view, (ii) to introduce additional datasets in the assessment, and (iii) to propose an optimized monitoring program to help reduce monitoring costs. The method consisted of tools to analyse, by means of simple statistical techniques, if any reduction of the available datasets could provide results comparable with the published assessments, and support a reduced monitoring program (and limited loss in confidence). The data reduction scenarios included the removal of an existing dataset or the inclusion of freely available third-party data (FerryBox, satellite observations) with existing datasets. Merging different datasets was problematic due to the heterogeneity of the techniques, sensors and scales, and a cross validation was carried out to assess possible biases between the different datasets. The results showed that there was little margin to remove any of the available datasets and that the use of extensive datasets, such as satellite data, has an important effect, often leading to a change in assessment results with respect to the thresholds, generally moving from threshold exceedance to non-exceedance. This suggested that the results of the original assessment might be biased toward sampling location and time and emphasized the importance of monitoring programmes providing better coverage over large spatial and temporal scales, and the opportunity to improve assessments by combining observations, satellite data, and model results.

Abstract Increased plastic consumption and poor waste management have resulted in litter representing an ever-increasing threat to the marine environment. To identify sources and evaluate mitigation measures, beach litter has been monitored. Using data from two citizen science protocols (CSPs) and OSPAR monitoring of Norwegian beaches, this study 1) identifies the most abundant litter types, 2) compares OSPAR to citizen science data, and 3) examines how to improve the management relevance of beach litter data. The dominant litter types were; food and drink- and fishery related items, and unidentifiable plastic pieces. Data from CSPs are consistent with OSPAR data in abundance and diversity, although few OSPAR beaches limit verification of CSP data. In contrast to OSPAR, the CSPs estimate the weight of the litter. CSPs lack important variables which could explain why some litter types are abundant in some particular areas. The latter could be improved by recording GPS positions. Highlights • Major sources of beach litter are the general public and the fishing industry. • Drink bottles in Lofoten are mainly Norwegian, but some originate outside the region. • Citizen science and OSPAR data are comparable on source and litter diversity. • The mean number of litter items ranged between 144 and 402 per 100 m beach. • The number of litter items decreases with increasing latitude. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent years witnessed an increasing society consciousness on subjects concerning aquatic pollution. In Europe, several legislative pieces have been implemented to improve and protect the aquatic environment like the Water Framework Directive (WFD) and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), as well as the specific strategies adopted by Regional Sea Conventions. Here we assess the quality status of the Portuguese coastal and transitional waters regarding TBT pollution, using imposex as biomarker, aiming its integration as an indicator of environmental quality assessment under the MSFD. Imposex data available for two gastropod bioindicators, Nucella lapillus and Nassarius reticulatus , are used for that purpose, applying the classification previously proposed for the WFD (described elsewhere) and the OSPAR Assessment Criteria. A good quality status was achieved in most of the stations located in coastal waters while a worse ecological status was perceived in stations located in transitional water bodies, due to the proximity of TBT contamination sources. The comparison between the WFD classification proposal and the OSPAR Assessment Criteria shows a similar temporal trend in the study area however, slight differences can be perceived and are discussed. Both the WFD and OSPAR should be considered on the MSFD implementation but they differ in their objectives regarding TBT pollution. Therefore, this work allows the integration of imposex monitoring within the MSFD and recommends the use of the WFD assessment criteria also in this directive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine environmental monitoring is undertaken to provide evidence that environmental management targets are being met. Moreover, monitoring also provides context to marine science and over the last century has allowed development of a critical scientific understanding of the marine environment and the impacts that humans are having on it. The seas around the UK are currently monitored by targeted, impact-driven, programmes (e.g., fishery or pollution based monitoring) often using traditional techniques, many of which have not changed significantly since the early 1900s. The advent of a new wave of automated technology, in combination with changing political and economic circumstances, means that there is currently a strong drive to move toward a more refined, efficient, and effective way of monitoring. We describe the policy and scientific rationale for monitoring our seas, alongside a comprehensive description of the types of equipment and methodology currently used and the technologies that are likely to be used in the future. We contextualize the way new technologies and methodologies may impact monitoring and discuss how whole ecosystems models can give an integrated, comprehensive approach to impact assessment. Furthermore, we discuss how an understanding of the value of each data point is crucial to assess the true costs and benefits to society of a marine monitoring programme.

Anthropogenic litter in aquatic ecosystems negatively impacts ecosystems, species and economic activities. Rivers play a key role in transporting land-based waste towards the ocean. A large portion however is retained within river basins, for example in the estuary, in sediments and on the riverbanks. To effectively identify litter sources, sinks and transport mechanisms, reliable data are crucial. Furthermore, such data can support optimizing litter prevention mitigation and clean-up efforts. This paper presents the results of a 2-year monitoring campaign focused on riverbank macrolitter (>0.5 cm) in the Dutch Rhine–Meuse delta. Between 2017 and 2019, volunteers sampled 152 415 litter items at 212 unique locations. All items were categorized based on the River-OSPAR method (based on the OSPAR beach litter guidelines), which includes 110 specific item categories across ten parent categories. The median litter density was 2060 items/km, and the most observed items were foam, hard, and soft plastic fragments (55.8%). Plastic bottles, food wrappings and packaging, caps, lids and cotton swabs were the most abundant specific items. The litter density and most abundant items vary considerably between rivers, along the river, and over time. For both rivers however, the highest litter density values were found at the Belgian (Meuse) and German (Rhine) borders, and at the Biesbosch National Park, the most downstream location. With this paper, we aim to provide a first scientific overview of the abundance, top item categories, and spatiotemporal variation of anthropogenic litter on riverbanks in the Dutch Rhine–Meuse delta. In addition, we evaluate the used River-OSPAR method and provide suggestions for future implementation in (inter)national long-term monitoring strategies. The results can be used by scientists and policy-makers for future litter monitoring, prevention and clean-up strategies.

Establishing a network of marine-protected areas (MPAs) in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) is viewed as an important measure to protect marine biodiversity. To date 12 MPAs have been established: two in the Southern Ocean and 10 in the North-East Atlantic region, and more are proposed. The Southern Ocean MPAs were adopted by Members of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) in a complex, slow and challenging process. The North-East Atlantic MPAs were established under the OSPAR Convention and although the MPA network was established swiftly, doubts remain about whether it was a successful institutional development for the protection of marine biodiversity or just a network of 'paper parks'. This article analyses the planning and negotiation processes that took place in establishing the 12 current MPAs to identify lessons useful for establishing MPAs in ABNJ in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to develop standard statistical methods and software for the analysis of beach litter data. The optimal ensemble of statistical methods comprises the Mann-Kendall trend test, the Theil-Sen slope estimation, the Wilcoxon step trend test and basic descriptive statistics. The application of Litter Analyst, a tailor-made software for analysing the results of beach litter surveys, to OSPAR beach litter data from seven beaches bordering on the south-eastern North Sea, revealed 23 significant trends in the abundances of beach litter types for the period 2009–2014. Litter Analyst revealed a large variation in the abundance of litter types between beaches. To reduce the effects of spatial variation, trend analysis of beach litter data can most effectively be performed at the beach or national level. Spatial aggregation of beach litter data within a region is possible, but resulted in a considerable reduction in the number of significant trends. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grey ( Halichoerus grypus ) and harbour seals ( Phoca vitulina ) are sympatric seal species, but they display distinct strategies of habitat use and connectivity between haulout sites. The distribution patterns and variations in relative abundance of both species were investigated along the French coast of the English Channel, at the southern limit of their range where seal numbers are increasing. Regular censuses conducted at all main haulout sites in mainland France showed significant seasonal variations at most sites, with more harbour seals counted during summer (breeding and moulting seasons), and more grey seals during summer only in the eastern English Channel. Trends in maximum haulout numbers at haulout sites showed a significant increase over the last five years, ranging from 9.7% to 30.9% per year for harbour seals, and from 5.8% (in the western English Channel) to 49.2% (in the eastern English Channel) per year for grey seals. These rates of increase in grey seal numbers are not linked to local pup production and most probably result from seal movements from the southwest British Isles and the North Sea, respectively. Aerial surveys conducted across the English Channel showed that most seal observations at sea were concentrated in the north-eastern English Channel. Telemetry showed that the 28 harbour seals tracked remained highly coastal, within a radius of 100 km from their haulout sites, and did not move to other known colonies. Grey seals moved much greater distances, reaching up to 1200 km from their capture site. More than half of the 45 grey seals tracked crossed the English Channel, especially during the breeding season, moving to known colonies in the southwest British Isles and the North Sea. Combining individual tracks and long-term surveys of the seal populations allowed a better understanding of the dynamics of these populations and their connectivity at a larger regional scale. The findings provide direct information for the management of grey and harbour seals within the frame of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, and highlight focus areas where potential interactions between the two species should be monitored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many maritime countries in Europe have implemented marine environmental monitoring programmes which include the measurement of chemical contaminants and related biological effects. How best to integrate data obtained in these two types of monitoring into meaningful assessments has been the subject of recent efforts by the International Council for Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Expert Groups. Work within these groups has concentrated on defining a core set of chemical and biological endpoints that can be used across maritime areas, defining confounding factors, supporting parameters and protocols for measurement. The framework comprised markers for concentrations of, exposure to and effects from, contaminants. Most importantly, assessment criteria for biological effect measurements have been set and the framework suggests how these measurements can be used in an integrated manner alongside contaminant measurements in biota, sediments and potentially water. Output from this process resulted in OSPAR Commission ( www.ospar.org ) guidelines that were adopted in 2012 on a trial basis for a period of 3 years. The developed assessment framework can furthermore provide a suitable approach for the assessment of Good Environmental Status (GES) for Descriptor 8 of the European Union (EU) Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is general agreement that representative and ecologically coherent networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) should be created to maintain biodiversity and to conserve specific species, habitats and ecological processes. This article addresses the contribution that is made by the Netherlands to the North Sea MPA network. It reviews the applicable legal obligations with regard to the designation of MPAs contained in global and regional treaties and EU law, and provides a critical assessment of the actions that have thus far been taken by the Netherlands to implement these obligations. The article concludes that significant steps have been taken towards a solid Dutch contribution to the global and regional goals of representative MPA networks. There are, however, a number of shortcomings. To a large degree, these are the result of the policy of the Netherlands Government to go no further in the designation of MPAs than what is strictly required by the EU Birds and Habitats Directives. On account of the widely acknowledged ‘marine deficiencies’ of the Habitats Directive, this policy stands in the way of achieving the target of a representative MPA network. Moreover, it is rather doubtful whether the same minimalist approach is sufficient to meet the relevant obligations of the Netherlands under global and regional treaties, in particular the OSPAR Convention. These shortcomings can be remedied by the designation of additional MPAs and, in some cases, by extending the list of species and habitats for which current MPAs have been selected.

The international community has committed itself to establishing a coherent network of marine protected areas (MPAs) by 2012. This network should also extend to areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), namely the high seas and the ‘Area’ (the seabed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof beyond the limits of national jurisdiction). This article examines the pioneering efforts of OSPAR to establish MPAs in ABNJ in the North-East Atlantic Ocean. In that connection, OSPAR has to work out how to deal with the applicable international governance and regulatory framework, most importantly the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the various ‘competent’ international organizations functioning thereunder. The article’s most important conclusion is that an effective regime for ABNJ in general and also for holistic MPAs in ABNJ requires complementary action at the global and regional levels. OSPAR’s pioneering approach may, if pursued carefully – among other things by respecting the competence of other global and regional bodies – have a decisive impact on the development of the global legal regime in respect of the role of regional environmental organizations in the management of ABNJ.

Imposex is decreasing worldwide after the total ban on tributyltin (TBT) from antifouling paints. In order to assess improvement in the NE Atlantic, the OSPAR Convention designed an Ecological Quality Objective (EcoQO) based on the VDSI (vas deferens sequence index, an agreed measure of imposex) in the rock snail Nucella lapillus ; wherever this is not available, the mud snail Nassarius reticulatus was proposed as a proxy. We determined VDSI in Galician populations of rock ( n ≥ 34) and mud ( n ≥ 18) snails at regular intervals from pre-ban times until 2009 and 2011, respectively. While imposex in the former started decreasing in 2006 and by 2009 the EcoQO had been met in the area, VDSI in the latter was not significantly reduced until 2011 and values contradict such an achievement. This suggests that the OSPAR imposex bi-species scheme may not be of direct application in the current post-ban scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective management and conservation of terrestrially breeding marine predators requires information on connectivity between specific breeding sites and at-sea foraging areas. In the north-east Atlantic, efforts to monitor and manage the impacts of bycatch or pollution events within different Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic ( OSPAR) management regions are currently constrained by uncertainty over the origins of seabirds occurring in each area., Whilst Global Positioning System ( GPS) loggers can now provide high resolution data on seabird foraging characteristics, their use is largely restricted to the chick-rearing period. Smaller light-based Global Location Sensors (geolocators) could provide valuable data during earlier phases of the breeding season, but additional information on their accuracy is required to assess this potential., We used incubation trip tracking data from 11 double-tagged ( GPS/geolocator) northern fulmars Fulmarus glacialis L. within a state-space modelling ( SSM) framework to estimate errors around geolocator locations. The SSM was then fitted to a larger sample of geolocator data from the pre-laying exodus using the mean of these error estimates. Geolocator data were first used to compare the trip durations of males and females during this critical pre-laying period. Outputs from the SSM were then used to characterize their spatial distribution and assess the extent of within-colony variation in the use of different OSPAR management regions., During the pre-laying exodus, fulmars from a single colony in the north-east of the United Kingdom foraged widely across several biogeographical regions, up to 2900 km from the colony. Most (60%) males remained within the North Sea region, whereas most (68%) females flew north, foraging within the Norwegian and Barents Sea. A small subset of birds (15%) travelled to the central North Atlantic. Foraging trips by males appeared to be shorter (x = 18 days, n = 20) than by females (x = 25 days, n = 19)., Policy implications. Our results of state-space modelling of geolocation data collected from northern fulmars show that within-colony variation in ranging behaviour during the breeding season results in sex differences in exposure to threats such as fisheries bycatch and marine plastics. Birds from a single colony dispersed over several north-east Atlantic management areas. These patterns have implications for interpreting trends in colony-based monitoring schemes, and European Union Marine Strategy Framework programmes using these seabirds as an indicator species for monitoring trends in marine litter and prioritizing efforts to mitigate its impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are considered key elements to the achievement of conservation and sustainable marine management targets. Yet, even if recently the number of MPAs has increased rapidly worldwide, the area of ocean under some type of MPA classification is far behind the international targets (e.g. Convention on Biological Diversity) considered essential for conservation of the world's oceans. Furthermore, coherence, representativeness and effectiveness of existing MPAs are largely unknown or even weakly defined. In this study, general characteristics of MPAs from Portugal, Spain and France were collected and used to evaluate conservation progress in this geographic area. In addition, an online questionnaire was administered to the MPAs managers, and focused on multiple processes inherent to each MPA, namely on the characteristics and suitability of planning, management, monitoring, governance and enforcement. Obtained responses were used to calculate the overall level of MPA management effectiveness, and multivariate analyses were used to identify the factors that most contributed to differences in effectiveness. Most MPAs are adjacent to the coast, are small in area (near 50% have less than 20 km 2 ) and were established with multiple goals concerning species conservation and sustainable development of economic activities (e.g. fisheries). Only 9% of analysed MPAs are larger than 1000 km 2 and are unequally distributed among the study area. Overall, 46% of MPAs and 59% of total area covered were established during the last five years, while only 3 of the 35 no-take areas (22% in area) were implemented during this period. High MPA effectiveness (i.e. the extent to which an MPA is protecting values and achieving its goals and objectives) was related with high levels of stakeholders support, with suitable goals, management and enforcement. Results highlighted the need to improve MPA coverage taking into account other existing MPAs to increase coherence and representativeness of networks, that new no-take areas should be implemented in key conservation sites and that management strategies (e.g. enforcement and monitoring) should be strengthened. These findings are applicable to the study area yet methodology and outcomes are pertinent to MPA management worldwide. Ultimately, strategies aiming at maximizing MPA performance are probably as important as the increase of MPA coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Europe, policy frameworks demand the monitoring of microplastics in marine sediments. Here we provide a monitoring and data analysis method for microplastic particles designed to be used in the context of Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) and OSPAR policy frameworks. Microplastics were analysed in marine sediments at four different locations in Dutch coastal and transitional waters using replicate sampling to investigate micro-spatial variation. Particle size distribution followed a power law with slope 3.76. Thirteen polymers were identified, with their composition varying between sediments near densely populated West coast areas versus the more rural Wadden Sea area. We quantify differences in the micro-spatial variation of microplastic concentrations between locations using the relative standard error of the mean (RSEM). This metric provides an opportunity to optimize the sensitivity of trend detection in microplastic monitoring networks by selecting locations with relatively low micro-spatial variation. We provide a method to optimize the number of replicate samples for a given location using its relationship with the RSEM. Two replicate samples appear to be cost-effective for relatively homogenous locations, whereas more heterogenous locations require four replicates. • Improved monitoring and data analysis with potential relevance for MSFD and OSPAR monitoring of microplastics in sediments. • A data analysis method is provided that allows for the optimization of the number of replicates used for specific locations • RSEM model can be used for a cost-effective choice of the number of subsamples to be analysed. • For relatively homogenic locations two samples can be cost-effective, more heterogenic locations can require four samples [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) is a key legislative action developed by the European Union in order to protect aquatic ecosystems. One of the concerning pollutants, listed in this directive as a priority hazardous substance, is tributyltin (TBT), a biocide largely used in antifouling paints and identified as a causative agent of imposex/intersex in gastropods. In order to integrate TBT pollution monitoring within this legislative framework, a practical exercise is here proposed to assess the evolution of surface water ecological status in Ria de Aveiro (NW Portugal). Three bioindicators – the caenogastropods Nucella lapillus , Nassarius reticulatus and Littorina littorea – were used under the general WFD benthic invertebrate quality element, and the vas deferens sequence index (VDSI) and the intersex index (ISI) were selected as biomarkers for the purpose of assessing the condition of this quality element regarding the impact of TBT pollution. Levels of VDSI in N. lapillus and N. reticulatus , and ISI in L. littorea , were surveyed in 2013 and compared with previous data available for the same species and study area in 1998 and 2005, providing a time lapse for a period of 15 years. VDSI and ISI values were converted into Ecological Quality Ratios (EQR) and EQR boundaries were set for each species in order to define the five ecological status classes (High, Good, Moderate, Poor and Bad). We propose N. lapillus as key bioindicator, however the combined use of further species is very useful to cover a wider study area. Based on the proposed method, it is concluded that the ecological status of the surface waters surveyed in Ria de Aveiro, concerning the impact of TBT pollution on the above benthic invertebrate taxa, improved considerably since 1998 and achieved a Good Ecological Status in 2013, thus meeting the WFD environmental objectives for this priority hazardous substance even before 2015. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Marine Strategy Framework Directive has become the key instrument for marine conservation in European seas. We review its implementation, focusing on cetacean biodiversity, using the examples of Spain and the Regional Seas Convention, OSPAR. The MSFD has been widely criticised for legal vagueness, lack of coordination, uncertainty about funding, and poor governance; its future role within EU Integrated Maritime Policy remains unclear. Nevertheless, the first stages of the process have run broadly to schedule: current status, environmental objectives and indicators have been described and the design of monitoring programmes is in progress, drawing on experience with other environmental legislation. The MSFD is now entering its critical phase, with lack of funding for monitoring, limited scope for management interventions, and uncertainty about how conservation objectives will be reconciled with the needs of other marine and maritime sectors, being among the main concerns. Clarity in governance, about the roles of the EU, Member States, Regional Seas Conventions and stakeholders, is needed to ensure success. However, even if (as seems likely) good environmental status cannot be achieved by 2020, significant steps will have been taken to place environmental sustainability centre-stage in the development of Integrated Maritime Policy for EU seas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Various international treaty bodies and non-governmental organisations continuously urge States to establish a network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction (ABNJ). Although this goal is far from being reached, the OSPAR Convention may serve as an example illustrating the efforts made on a regional level for the North-East Atlantic. However, these efforts to effectively protect the marine environment are subject to limitations under the Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Likewise, the OSPAR Convention itself restricts the scope of such protected areas. The OSPAR Convention does not adequately cover all human uses of the oceans that may interfere with a protected area, and it lacks opportunities for internationalised enforcement measures. Consequently, the responsibility for effective conservation measures under the OSPAR model ultimately remains with individual Contracting Parties, i.e. their commitment to set stricter standards and to agree on their enforcement. Nevertheless, ‘soft’ obligations such as reporting duties are suitable for collecting data on the need for protection and utilisation of the MPAs. Additionally, cooperation with regional fisheries management bodies allows for better protection of the living resources in these areas. Finally, OSPAR MPAs can draw attention to particularly vulnerable ecosystems and promote conservation standards and measures such as those developed under the auspices of the FAO. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]