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Uvod: Odvisnost od drog je kronična, ponavljajoča se motnja, pri kateri se kompulzivno iskanje drog nadaljuje kljub resnim negativnim posledicam. Zloraba drog povzroča velike socialne in zdravstvene težave za ljudi in družbo v številnih državah. Odvisnost od prepovedanih drog je oblika zlorabe drog, ki predstavlja izziv tudi zdravstvenim delavcem. Namen: Ugotoviti smo želeli, kakšna je vloga medicinskih sester pri zdravljenju odvisnosti od prepovedanih drog. Preučiti smo želeli naloge medicinske sestre, ki jih ta izvaja pri obravnavi tovrstnih pacientov, lajšanje bolečine pri odvisnikih ter odnos medicinskih sester do odvisnikov od drog in do odvisnosti. Metode dela: Uporabljena je bila deskriptivna raziskovalna metoda, naredili smo pregled literature. Objave smo iskali v podatkovnih bazah CINAHL in COBIB.SI, digitalnih arhivih Obzornika zdravstvene nege, s pomočjo brskalnikov PubMed in DiKul, Google Učenjak ter ScienceDirect. Pregledani članki so napisani v angleščini, slovenščini ter srbohrvaščini in niso starejši od 10 let. Rezultati: Našli in pregledali smo šest znanstvenih člankov. Ugotovili smo, da imajo na splošno medicinske sestre premalo dodatnega znanja o zdravljenju in obravnavi odvisnikov. Zaradi premalo znanja je med njimi prisotne tudi veliko stigmatizacije, ki neugodno vpliva na oskrbo ter počutje bolnikov med zdravljenjem. Negativna stališča ter premalo znanja vplivajo tudi na obravnavo bolečine odvisnikov, ki je dokazano nezdravljena. Razprava in zaključek: Medicinske sestre so bistvenega pomena pri zdravljenju odvisnosti, zlasti je pomemben njihov empatičen in strokoven odnos. Prav tako so pomembne pri vključevanju posameznikov z odvisnostjo od drog v rehabilitacijo, pri učinkovitem zdravljenju ter spremembi življenjskega sloga. Introduction: Drug addiction is a chronic, recurrent disorder in which compulsive drug seeking and drug use continue despite serious negative consequences. Drug abuse causes major social and health problems for people and society in many countries. Drug addiction is a form of drug abuse that poses a challenge also for healthcare professionals. Purpose: We aimed to find out about the role of nurses in the treatment of drug addiction. We were interested in the tasks of the nurse practitioners in treating these patients and relieving their pain, as well as the nurses’ attitudes toward drug addicts and addiction. Methods: We used a descriptive research method and reviewed the literature. We searched for articles in CINAHL and COBIB.SI databases, the Nursing Review Digital Archive, PubMed and DiKul, Google Scholar and ScienceDirect. Reviewed articles are written in English, Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian, and are no older than 10 years. Results: We found and reviewed six scientific articles. The results of the analysis show that nurses tend to have insufficient additional knowledge on the treatment and care of addicts. The lack of knowledge leads to relatively high levels of stigmatization, which negatively affects the care and well-being of patients during treatment. Negative attitudes and lack of knowledge also affect the treatment of addicts’ pain, which has been proven to be untreated. Discussion and conclusion: Nurses are essential in the treatment of addiction, especially important is their empathetic and professional attitude. Nurses play an important role in addicts’ involvement in rehabilitation, effective treatment and lifestyle change.

Traumatic experience in childhood or adolescence has a significant impact on the development of chronic mental and physical conditions in adulthood. Thus, it is very important for health professionals, especially primary care physicians to have an inventory in order to detect early trauma for planning appropriate treatment, such as the Early Trauma Inventory (ETI). The aim of this paper is to test the psychometric properties of the Slovenian translation of the short, self-rated version (ETISR-SF), and to further validate the instrument.The research was done in two parts - qualitative and quantitative. In the qualitative part, a questionnaire was translated and culturally adapted using the Delphi method. For the quantitative part, 51 patients with substance use disorders hospitalized at the Centre for the Treatment of Drug Addictions were recruited, along with 133 controls. The psychometric properties of the questionnaire were checked. Internal consistency was calculated using Cronbach's alpha, test-retest reliability was examined graphically using a Bland-Altman plot. Discriminant validity between groups was gauged using the independent samples t-test.Consensus in the Delphi study was reached in the second round. Cronbach's alpha varied between 0.60 - 0.85. Of the four domains, physical abuse had the lowest Cronbach's alpha. The test-retest reliability is high for all domains, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.82 to 0.96. The non-clinical sample differed significantly from the clinical sample.The Slovenian translation of ETISR-SF is a satisfactory instrument for the evaluation of trauma before the age of 18.Po poročilu Nacionalnega inštituta za javno zdravje smo v Sloveniji lani prvič ugotavljali razširjenost obremenjujočih izkušenj v otroštvu. Večina anketiranih (76 %) je v otroštvu doživela vsaj eno, dobra četrtina (27 %) pa štiri ali več obremenjujočih izkušenj. Travmatične izkušnje v otroštvu ali mladostništvu pomembno vplivajo na razvoj kroničnih duševnih in telesnih motenj v odrasli dobi in predstavljajo pomemben javnozdravstveni problem povsod po svetu. V Sloveniji še nimamo veljavnega in zanesljivega vprašalnika za presejanje, s katerim bi pri odraslih lahko ugotavljali zgodnje travmatične izkušnje. Vprašalnik za samooceno travm iz otroštva – kratka oblika (The Early Trauma Inventory Self Report – Short Form ETISR-SF) je eden takih vprašalnikov, ki omogoča hiter in zanesljiv pregled potencialnih travmatičnih dogodkov v otroštvu in mladostništvu. Z njim lahko hitro dobimo izhodišče za bolj poglobljeno raziskovanje v klinično-terapevtski praksi. Namen prispevka je predstaviti preverjanje psihometričnih lastnosti slovenskega prevoda kratke samoocenjevalne različice ETISR-SF in dodatno potrditi veljavnost vprašalnika.Raziskava je bila izvedena v dveh delih. V kvalitativnem delu je bil vprašalnik preveden in kulturološko prilagojen s pomočjo študije delphi. Od povabljenih 51 specializantov psihiatrije se jih je v študijo delphi vključilo 8. V kvantitativnem delu so bile preverjene psihometrične lastnosti vprašalnika v klinični in neklinični populaciji. Vključenih je bilo 51 pacientov z motnjo odvisnosti od psihoaktivnih snovi, hospitaliziranih na Centru za zdravljenje odvisnih od prepovedanih drog, in 133 oseb v kontrolni skupini. Notranja konsistentnost je bila izračunana z uporabo koeficienta alfa Cronbach, zanesljivost preizkusnega testiranja je bila grafično preučena s pomočjo ploskve Blanda Altmana. Diskriminantna veljavnost med skupinami je bila ocenjena s t-testom za neodvisne vzorce.V kvalitativnem delu raziskave je bilo soglasje s prevodom doseženo po dveh krogih delphi z nekaj manjšimi jezikovnimi popravki. V kvantitativnem delu raziskave se je 56 (42 %) oseb iz kontrolne skupine odzvalo na ponovno izpolnjevanje vprašalnika čez 14 dni. Zanesljivost preizkusa ponovnega testiranja je visoka za vsa področja s korelacijskimi koeficienti od 0,82 do 0,96. Koeficient Cronbach alfa se je gibal med 0,60 in 0,85. Del o fizični zlorabi je pokazal nižjo vrednost Cronbach alfe kot ostali deli (splošna travma, psihična in spolna zloraba). Zanesljivost dela o čustveni in spolni zlorabi je visoka (α = 0,85 in α = 0,82). Neklinični vzorec se je statistično značilno razlikoval od kliničnega vzorca.Slovenski prevod ETISR-SF je zadovoljiv instrument za hitro oceno travmatskih izkušenj do 18. leta starosti.

V prvem poglavju smo opredelili pojem nihilizem iz različnih vidikov. V drugem poglavju smo se seznanili s stanjem družbe. Ugotovili smo, da je čustvena pismenost pri mladih in prav tako pri starejših generacijah na zelo nizki ravni. Največji krivci za čustveno nepismenost so kulturni vzroki in ne toliko posameznikovi ali psihološki. »Posameznik je samo žrtev pomanjkanja obetov v družbi« in zato trpi posledice: je čustveno otopel in zaprt v sedanji trenutek, ki postopoma postaja »brezsmiselna puščava.« Zaradi tega se posameznik vedno bolj zapira v svoj svet in podlega svetu odvisnosti, ker išče zadostitev nepotešljivi želji. Na tem mestu smo govorili o odvisnostih. Največja težava pri posameznikih kot tudi v družbi so droge, ki dajo užitek in potešitev, a posledice so slabe, ker terjajo vedno večji odmerek in ne morejo zapolniti preluknjanega dna poželenja. Kljub temu se lahko iz teh ljudi naučimo, kam vodi njihovo hrepenenje. Tehnični svet predstavlja nov svet, v katerem živi sodobni človek. Zunaj tega družba ne funkcionira. Na tem področju lahko prihaja do odvisnosti in zaprtosti posameznikov v lasten, navidezen svet, kakor tudi do številnih prevar in izkoriščanj. To vpliva na posameznika, ki se v realnem svetu ne zna več čustveno povezati z drugo osebno in išče zadoščenje v svetu tehnike, ki pa ga v polnosti ne zadovolji. Zato je človek vedno bolj nesrečen, agresiven in obupan, ne zna se več obnašati v realnosti in ni izpopolnjen. Tudi odnosi so postali precej tehnični, za kar je kriv instrumentalni um. Prišli smo do smeri rešitev, ki so v iskanju lastne duševne moči, v spoznanju samega sebe in šele nato prehod na razvijanje lastnih kompetenc. Treba se je aktivno vključiti v svet, začeti ustvarjati, osvajati, delati. Z ravni poučevanja je treba preiti na raven vzgajanja, ki naj bo najprej čustveno. To se začne v družini in prav tako nadaljuje v šoli in širši družbi. Treba je vzgajati glede konkretnih življenjskih potreb ljudi in začeti z otroki in mladimi. Vključiti se je potrebno v odnose in začeti ustvarjati. S tem se presega individualizem. Ko imamo zadovoljene osnovane čustvene, psihične, telesne in duhovne potrebe, šele lahko začnemo ustvarjati družbo. Najprej se je treba naučiti biti človek in šele nato bomo zmogli ustvarjati in delati potrebne stvari. Tako bomo ustvarjali prostor za neposredno komunikacijo, kjer se bo lahko vsak izražal v vseh svojih potrebah brez zadržkov, tako doma kot v šoli. Na podlagi tega se bomo lahko navezali na konkretno dediščino znanosti in tudi učili. S tem bomo ustvarjali več želja, motivacije in energije pri mladih in starejših, ki bodo z upanjem usmerjeni v prihodnost. Cerkev in religija nosita veliko bogastvo dediščine, zato imata odlično vlogo pri vzgajanju in izgrajevanju posameznika na poti v izpopolnjeno/uresničeno osebnost. In the first Chapter we have defined the concept of nihilism, by its various aspects. In the second Chapter, we got to know the state of society. We have found that emotional literacy among young people, and even in older generations, is at a very low level. The main culprits of emotional illiteracy are cultural causes and not so much individual or psychological. "Single person is just a victim of the lack of prospective in society" and therefore suffers from the consequences: emotionally closed man at the present time, who gradually becomes "meaningless desert". For this reason, an individual is increasingly closed in his world and subjected to the world of addiction, because he tries to satisfy an unwanted desire. At this point, we talked about addictions. The biggest problem in individuals as well as in society are drugs that give pleasure and satisfaction, but the consequences are bad, because they require a growing dose and can not fill the perforated bottom. However, we can learn from these people, where they will us lead their wishes. Technology can represent a new world in which a modern man lives. Outside this world society does not work. In this area, there may also be the dependence of those individuals living in their imaginary world. This concerns the individual who does not know how to emotionally connect with another person in the real world. Single person is looking for satisfaction in the world of technology, which does not fully satisfy him. Therefore, man is increasingly unhappy, aggressive and desperate, can no longer act within reality. Because of the instrumental mind relationships have become quite technical. We have been searching for solutions that are themselves in search for their own mental power. In the recognition of ourselves and only after this, we can develop our emotional skills. The person should be actively involved in the world, start creating, conquering, working. From the level of teaching, you need to move to the level of education, which at first should be emotional. This begins in the family and continues at school and in society. You need to be educated about the specific needs of people and start with children and young people. You need to engage in relationships and start creating. This goes beyond individualism. Only when we have satisfied our emotional, psychological, physical and spiritual needs can we begin to create a coherent society. First, you have to learn to be a man and only then will we be able to create and do what is necessary. So we will create a space for direct communication where everyone can express themselves in all their needs without reservation, both at home and at school. On this basis, we will be able to relate to the heritage of science and start teaching. In doing so, we will create more desires, motivation and energy for the young people who will be oriented with hope towards the future. The Church and religion have a great heritage of heritage, which can play an excellent role in growing and building an individual on the path to a better and fulfilled person.

Poleg konvencionalnega bolezenskega modela odvisnosti od drog obstaja še mnogo drugih sodobnih teorij, ki poskušajo razložiti ta pojav, a zaenkrat še nobena teorija ni obveljala kot edina nesporno pravilna, saj imajo vse svoje prednosti in pomanjkljivosti. V diplomskem delu smo droge najprej opredelili in razvrstili, nato poiskali njihove bistvene značilnosti in raziskali njihovo delovanje. Naredili smo pregled najbolj znanih sodobnih teorij odvisnosti, jih med seboj primerjali glede na posamezna področja in preverili, v kolikšni meri so si pri razlagi pojava odvisnosti med seboj podobne. Ugotovili smo, da so si sodobne teorije med seboj v veliko pogledih precej enotne. Izkazalo se je, da vse nasprotujejo prepričanju, da je glavni vzrok za razvoj odvisnosti droga sama, prav tako pa vse zagovarjajo prepričanje, da so lahko posamezniki bolj ali manj ranljivi za razvoj odvisnosti. V pogledu na možnost popolne prekinitve odvisnosti se od večine sodobnih teorij, po katerih naj bi bila popolna prekinitev mogoča, razlikuje teorija odvisnosti kot samomedikacija, pri kateri posameznik tudi po dalj časa trajajočem prenehanju zlorabe drog ostaja občutljiv za ponovni zapad v odvisnost. Lewisov model pa popolno prekinitev zagovarja le do neke mere. Pri večini proučevanih sodobnih teorij se je izkazalo, da se oddaljujejo od prepričanj bolezenskega modela odvisnosti, kot izjema pa se je tu izkazala teorija odvisnosti kot samomedikacija, ki poskuša s svojimi ugotovitvami bolezenski model le dopolniti. Največja omejitev naših rezultatov je, da smo za primerjavo izbrali le nekaj sodobnih teorij odvisnosti, zato bi bilo v prihodnosti smotrno izvesti raziskavo, ki bi v primerjavo vključila še več različnih teorij razlage odvisnosti od drog. In addition to the conventional disease model of addiction to drugs, there are many other modern theories, which try to explain this phenomenon, but so far, no theory has prevailed as the sole one unquestionably correct, as all of them have their advantages and disadvantages. In our thesis, firstly we defined and classified drugs, described their basic characteristics and explored how they work. After that we included an overview of the most known modern theories of addiction and compared them considering different aspects of the phenomenon. We discovered that modern theories share the same views regarding many aspects of addiction. All of them oppose the belief that the main reason for the development of addiction is the drug itself. Additionally, all theories agree that some individuals are more vulnerable for developing addiction than others. Most of modern theories also share the view that a complete recovery from addiction to drugs is possible, however the theory of addiction as self-medication believes that an individual is susceptible to falling back into the addiction long after he stopped abusing drugs. Lewis’s theory of addiction advocates complete recovery only to a certain extent. We also established that most of modern theories distance themselves from the beliefs of the disease model of addiction. Regarding this aspect, the only exception is the theory of self-medication, which only tries to complement the disease model and not to disapprove it. The biggest limitation of our thesis’ findings is that we only included some of the modern theories, therefore future researches on pathology of addiction should also include other modern theories of addiction to drugs.

Danes vedno hitrejši razvoj na področju informacijsko-komunikacijskih tehnologij po eni strani predstavlja in prinaša prednosti za novodobno družbo, po drugi strani pa prinaša pojav novih vrst kibernetskih groženj. Vse bolj je izrazit trend uporabe informacijsko-komunikacijskih tehnologij med mladimi, zlasti zato, ker so nenehno povezani z internetom, kar privede do raznih nevarnosti v kibernetskem prostoru. Prepričani smo, da so prav kibernetski napadi ena izmed temeljnih varnostnih groženj sodobni družbi. Tako narava, kot tudi vrsta samih tehnologij, ki ustvarjajo komunikacijsko in informacijsko področje, se nenehno in hitro spreminjajo. Pričakujemo lahko nenehno širjenje na področju razvoja spleta in vse večjo uporabo računalnikov, pri čemer pa so meje nadzora in odgovornosti za varovanje osebnih podatkov skrite ali slabše definirane in raziskane. Tudi mobilne naprave, zlasti med mladimi in neizkušenimi uporabniki, omogočajo uporabo omrežij kadarkoli in kjerkoli, s tem pa se veča tudi izpostavljenost raznim varnostnim tveganjem. Omenjene značilnosti komunikacije preko IKT povzročijo, da mladi v kibernetskem prostoru brez večjih zadržkov ali pomislekov v splet pošiljajo ali objavljajo razne vsebine ali sporočila, ki lahko prejemnika s svojo vsebino tudi nadlegujejo, žalijo ali celo ustrahujejo na različne načine. Računalniške incidente lahko predstavimo kot niz dogodkov, ki vplivajo na varnost omrežja, naprav ali podatkov njihovih uporabnikov. Incidente lahko preprečimo samo z ustrezno zaščito in odgovornim ravnanjem na spletu. Ko incident zaznamo, moramo takoj ukrepati ali tako imenovane zlorabe tudi prijaviti pristojnim organom ter za nasvet vprašati starše ali odrasle osebe, v kolikor se sami ne znajdemo. Na ta način lahko zaznavamo napredek na področju IKT, opazimo nove ranljivosti in na ta način izpopolnjujemo lastno znanje in izkušnje oz. se nenehno učimo. Uporabniki smo na področju IKT tako postali navdušeni uporabniki spletnih storitev, saj se v večini veselimo novih storitev, ki jih tehnologija in splet ponujajo ter sočasno pozabljamo na naše odgovornosti, ki ob teh procesih nastajajo. Tisti, ki na spletu posredujejo ali ponujajo razne storitve, so tudi odgovorni, da so te storitve varne za vse uporabnike, naša odgovornost pa je, da katerekoli spletne storitve uporabljamo v skladu s pravili in pogoji uporabe. Varna raba in obnašanje na spletu se nanaša na uporabo varnih gesel in uporabniških imen, ki jih je težko razkrinkati, na varovanje osebnih podatkov, zlasti na spletnih socialnih omrežjih, na upoštevanje opozoril o zlonamernih programskih opremah ter izogibanje sumljivim spletnim stranem, ki lahko prikazujejo škodljive ali nelegalne vsebine. Napadeni in zlorabljeni v smislu kibernetske kriminalitete, so po navadi ravno povprečni uporabniki, ki ne upoštevajo priporočil za varno uporabo spletnih storitev in menijo, da so v kibernetskem prostoru varni. Z raznimi vdori v profile, ki jih uporabljamo, se pričnejo pojavljati številne spletne goljufije in zlorabe, ki smo jih uporabniki omogočili sami, saj nismo upoštevali varnostnih opozoril in nastavitev. Pri obravnavi varnosti v kibernetskem prostoru in rabe IKT lahko govorimo o njuni zahtevni soodvisnosti, kar bo tudi predmet naše nadaljnje raziskave. Kompleksnost storitev in procesov v fizičnem in kibernetskem prostoru predstavlja za današnjo družbo glavno težavo na področju zagotavljanja varnosti. Nenehni dostop do spleta prinaša prisotnost posameznika v virtualni skupnosti, ki postaja vse pogostejša in terja vedno več časa, ki ga uporabniki, zlasti mladostniki, preživijo na IKT, zato, da so povezani z internetom. Dejavnosti v kibernetskem okolju omogočajo anonimno in s tem povezano lažno predstavljanje, kar pa prinaša velike posledice in škodo ter težavnost nadzora. Sodobna družba torej postaja vse bolj odvisna od kibernetskega prostora in s tem povečuje nevarnosti, ki se nanašajo na kibernetsko kriminaliteto, lahko pa govorimo tudi o psiholoških posledicah, v Increasingly rapid development of Information and communications technology (ICT) brings advantages to the modern society but it also exposes it to various cyber-threats. It is noticed that the usage of information communication technology is increasing amongst youth, especially because of their constant connection to the world web – this can lead to cyber-threats. It is certain to say that cyber-attacks have become a fundamental threat to contemporary society. Nature and type of technologies that are creating information-communication area are constantly changing. We can expect constant expansion in the area of web-development and even bigger usage of computers. Consequently, protection of personal data and cyber safety are more vulnerable. Also mobile devices – especially amongst young and unexperienced users – are enabling the usage of networks whenever and wherever. This is increasing the exposure of safety risks. Aforementioned characteristics of ICT communication are encouraging the youth to share and publish various content and messages on the web and therefore risking to be harassed, insulted or even blackmailed on various ways. Computer incidents can be explained as a chain of event that are affecting network security, devices or user data. These incidents can be prevented only with adequate protection and responsible online behaviour. Once we detect the incident, we have to act immediately and report the online abuse to the responsible authority or ask for advice to a trustworthy person. In this way we can notice the progress in the area of ICT, see vulnerabilities and update our knowledge. Users of ICT are enthusiastic about new services that the web is offering but at the same time forgetting about responsibilities that are formed in the process. Parties that are offering services online are also responsible to provide safe experience for all the users. Users' responsibility is to act according to general rules and conditions. Safe usage and behaviour online means: usage of safe passwords and usernames that are difficult to expose, protection of personal data – especially on social media, follow-up of warnings about malware, avoidance of suspicious websites that can show damaging or illegal content, etc. User that is attacked and abused in sense of cyber-crime is normally an average user that does not follow up the recommendations for safe usage of the web and who thinks that he/she is safe in cyberspace. Numerous online frauds and abuses occur by hacking into personal profiles that we are not being used according to safety recommendations. When addressing safety in cyberspace and usage of ICT we notice their interdependence. This interdependence will be the subject of our future research. Complexity of services and processes in physical and cyber space represents the main problem in ensuring safety for modern society. The constant connection to the web and virtual society requires more time and users – especially youth – are willing to spend more and more time on ICT. Activities in cyberspace enable users’ anonymity and sometimes phishing that can lead to negative consequences and problems of supervision. Modern society is therefore becoming more and more addicted to the cyberspace and cyber-crime is consequently increasing. We can also discuss psychological consequences if users are exaggerating with the usage of ICT and the internet. These psychological consequences can be ICT addiction that can lead to negative physical and psychological consequences, family problems, communication problems and general distress. We are responsible for our actions and behaviour on the web therefore it is necessary to improve our knowledge about ICT and internet trends and safety.

Za postsocialistično obdobje je značilno ekonomsko nestabilno okolje, ki vpliva tudi na življenje posameznikov, predvsem na življenje mlajše generacije. Odrasli pod vplivom različnih pritiskov napenjajo svoje moči za lastno blagostanje in blagostanje svojih potomcev. Posledično gre za veliko odsotnost iz družine, ki jo najbolj čutijo otroci. V obdobju pubertete se na mesto prezaposlenih staršev mnogokrat postavijo prijatelji s sorodnimi problemi. Mladi bežijo iz stanja nezadovoljstva, udeležujejo se različnihe zabav, na katerih uživajo alkohol ali druge droge. A typical feature of the post-socialist era is economically unstable environment which is reflected in the lives of individuals, especially younger generations. Adults are under pressure caused by different factors while they are trying to ensure their own as well as their offspring's well-being. Consequently they spend a lot of time working and less time with their family, which affects most of all children. During the adolescence and puberty parent's place is filled by friends with whom they share similar problems. Young people try to escape from feelings of unsatisfaction in different ways: going to parties, consuming alcohol or taking other illegal drugs.