Search

The purpose of this review is to elucidate the actual threat of the most prevalent mycotoxins in agricultural commodities and human/animal food/feed for the induction of foodborne diseases or ailments. The underestimated hazard of combined mycotoxin uptake by animals or humans is critically discussed with regard to synergistic or additive interaction between some target mycotoxins. The real toxicity of target mycotoxin combinations as it happens in practice is evaluated and possible lower limit values or control measures are suggested in such cases. Some critical points on adequate risk assessment, hygiene control, and regulation of mycotoxins are discussed. The efficiency of current mycotoxin regulations and control measures is evaluated in regard to human/animal health hazards. The risk assessment in the case of multiple mycotoxin exposure of humans/animals via food/feed or agricultural commodities is evaluated and some suggestions are proposed in such cases. Appropriate control measures and food safety issues throughout the food supply chain are proposed in order to prevent the target foodborne diseases. Some preventive measures and possible veterinary hygiene controls or risk evaluations are proposed in some natural cases of foodborne diseases for preventing mycotoxin contamination of animal products designed for human consumption and to avoid possible public health issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ochratoxin A (OA) is a mycotoxin that has a potential risk to human health due to its nephrotoxic, immunotoxic and carcinogenic effects. For these reasons the interaction of ochratoxin A with human serum albumin (HSA) was investigated in physiological media by various techniques such as UV‐Vis, fluorescence (FL), circular dichroism (CD), attenuated total reflection (ATR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and molecular docking study via Auto Dock‐vina software. The fluorescence intensity of tryptophan in HSA was strongly quenched in the present of OA and the quenching constants and binding constant were valued 108 M−1 and 1.04 M−1, respectively. The CD spectra showed alteration in the secondary structure of HSA in the presence of ochratoxin by reducing the regular alpha helical structure and increasing the beta‐sheet structure. By increasing the concentration of OA to 1.25 μM, the intensity of absorption spectrum at 282 nm was increased, indicating the strong interaction of OA and HSA. The enthalpies of these molecular interaction calculated from DSC analysis indicate OA interaction with HAS is exothermic. The docking calculations showed that the amino acids of Lys190, ASP187, LYS519, ARG186 and ARG428 were interacted with OA by hydrogen bonding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of this review paper is to evaluate the underestimated hazard of multiple mycotoxin exposure of animals/humans for the appearance of foodborne ailments and diseases. The significance of joint mycotoxin interaction in the development of foodborne diseases is discussed, and appropriate conclusions are made. The importance of low feed/food levels of some target mycotoxins co-contaminations in food and feedstuffs for induction of target foodborne mycotoxicoses is also studied in the available literature. The appropriate hygiene control and the necessary risk assessment in regard to possible hazards for animals and humans are also discussed, and appropriate suggestions are made. Some internationally recognized prophylactic measures, management of the risk, and the necessity of elaboration of new international regulations in regard to the maximum permitted levels are also carefully discussed and analysed in the cases of multiple mycotoxin contaminations. The necessity of harmonization of mycotoxin regulations and control measures at international levels is also discussed in order to facilitate food trade between the countries and to ensure global food safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review paper highlights the most prevalent mycotoxins in agricultural commodities and possible hazard of mycotoxin occurrence in foods/feeds in regards to foodborne diseases. The underestimated hazard of multiple mycotoxin exposure of humans or animals is also briefly evaluated. The risk assessment and management of the risk of mycotoxin contamination of foods/feeds by some appropriate preventive measures against mycotoxin contamination of raw materials and food commodities in the pre-harvesting and post-harvesting time is elucidated. The most common chemical or physical methods of mycotoxins decontamination of agricultural commodities and raw materials are evaluated. The practical use of feed/food additives as a possible method for preventing the adverse effects of some target mycotoxins or mycotoxins combination is shortly reviewed. The adequate processing of some raw materials and agricultural commodities with regards to possible mycotoxin decontamination is evaluated. A survey is also made in regard to the veterinary preventive measures and the possible hygiene control and risk assessment in some practical cases of foodborne mycotoxicoses in order to prevent mycotoxins contamination of target food commodities from animal origin and to avoid a possible entering of some mycotoxins in commercial channels with a view to ensure adequate public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past decades, many studies have examined the nature of the interaction between mycotoxins in biological models classifying interaction effects as antagonisms, additive effects, or synergisms based on a comparison of the observed effect with the expected effect of combination. Among several described mathematical models, the arithmetic definition of additivity and factorial analysis of variance were the most commonly used in mycotoxicology. These models are incorrectly based on the assumption that mycotoxin dose-effect curves are linear. More appropriate mathematical models for assessing mycotoxin interactions include Bliss independence, Loewe’s additivity law, combination index, and isobologram analysis, Chou-Talalays median-effect approach, response surface, code for the identification of synergism numerically efficient (CISNE) and MixLow method. However, it seems that neither model is ideal. This review discusses the advantages and disadvantages of these mathematical models.

The spreading of mycotoxic nephropathy in animals/humans was studied. The possible etiological causes provoking this nephropathy were carefully reviewed and analyzed. The natural content of the most frequent nephrotoxic mycotoxins in target feedstuffs/foods were investigated, in addition to their significance for development of renal damages in endemic areas. An estimation of the level of exposure of humans to the nephrotoxic mycotoxin, ochratoxin A (OTA), is made. The possible synergism or additive effects between some target mycotoxins in the development of nephropathy is also covered. The significance of joint mycotoxin interaction and masked mycotoxins, in addition to some newly isolated fungal toxic agents in the complicated etiology of mycotoxic nephropathy ranged in Balkan countries is discussed. The importance of some target fungal species which can induce kidney damages was evaluated. The morphological/ultrastructural, functional and toxicological similarities between human and animal nephropathy are studied. The possible hazard of low content of combinations of some target mycotoxins in food or feedstuff ingested by pigs, chickens or humans under natural conditions is evaluated and a risk assessment was made. Some different but more effective manners of prophylaxis and/or prevention against OTA contamination of feedstuffs/foods are suggested. A survey was made in regard to the best possible ways of veterinary hygiene control of OTA-exposed animals at slaughter time for preventing the entrance of OTA in commercial feedstuffs/food channels with a view to reduce the possible health hazard for humans. The economic efficacy and applicability of such preventive measures is additionally discussed and some practical suggestions are made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey was made of the literature concerning the occurrence and incidence of mycotoxic nephropathy in pigs and chicks in different countries. Various etiological factors contributing to the development of the disease were considered. The main nephrotoxic fungi as well as the specific conditions for their growth and toxins production were briefly described. A survey was made about the most frequent nephrotoxic fungal contaminants in various feedstuffs from plant origin. In addition, their natural quantities and importance for development of mycotoxic porcine/chick nephropathy (MPN/MCN) are also explored. In addition, a survey was made of the feedstuffs representing the most favorable environment for nephrotoxic fungal growth as well as the most favorable storehouse conditions for this fungal growth were shortly described. The significance of some underestimated fungal species, which can provoke kidney damage, was studied. The importance of joint mycotoxin interaction and newly identified fungal metabolites in the complex etiology of mycotoxic nephropathy ranged in some countries is deeply investigated. The toxicity of the low contamination levels of some combinations of mycotoxins often administered by pigs and chicks in the practice was carefully studied.

The existing hazard of joint mycotoxin exposure of animals/humans and the significance of masked mycotoxins in foods or feeds and their respective contributions to the development of some food born mycotoxicoses is briefly reviewed. The importance of joint mycotoxin interaction in the complex etiology of some foodborn mycotoxicoses is covered in depth. The toxicity of low contamination levels of some combinations of mycotoxins ingested often by farm animals was carefully studied. The appropriate hygiene control and the necessary risk assessment in regard to mycotoxin contamination of foods and feeds are briefly analyzed and some useful prophylactic measures and management of the risk of mycotoxin contamination, in addition to tolerable daily intakes are also described. A reference is also made to the most suitable methods of veterinary hygiene control in some practical situations in order to prevent mycotoxins contaminating commercial food commodities and endangering public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey was made of the literature concerning the occurrence and incidence of mycotoxic nephropathy in pigs and chicks in different countries. Various etiological factors contributing to the development of the disease were considered. The main nephrotoxic fungi as well as the specific conditions for their growth and toxins production were briefly described. A survey was made about the most frequent nephrotoxic fungal contaminants in various feedstuffs from plant origin. In addition, their natural quantities and importance for development of mycotoxic porcine/chick nephropathy (MPN/MCN) are also explored. In addition, a survey was made of the feedstuffs representing the most favorable environment for nephrotoxic fungal growth as well as the most favorable storehouse conditions for this fungal growth were shortly described. The significance of some underestimated fungal species, which can provoke kidney damage, was studied. The importance of joint mycotoxin interaction and newly identified fungal metabolites in the complex etiology of mycotoxic nephropathy ranged in some countries is deeply investigated. The toxicity of the low contamination levels of some combinations of mycotoxins often administered by pigs and chicks in the practice was carefully studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past decades, many studies have examined the nature of the interaction between mycotoxins in biological models classifying interaction effects as antagonisms, additive effects, or synergisms based on a comparison of the observed effect with the expected effect of combination. Among several described mathematical models, the arithmetic definition of additivity and factorial analysis of variance were the most commonly used in mycotoxicology. These models are incorrectly based on the assumption that mycotoxin dose-effect curves are linear. More appropriate mathematical models for assessing mycotoxin interactions include Bliss independence, Loewe's additivity law, combination index, and isobologram analysis, Chou-Talalays median-effect approach, response surface, code for the identification of synergism numerically efficient (CISNE) and MixLow method. However, it seems that neither model is ideal. This review discusses the advantages and disadvantages of these mathematical models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]