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AbstractFungi and their natural products, like secondary metabolites, have gained a huge demand in the last decade due to their increasing applications in healthcare, environmental cleanup, and biotechnology-based industries. The fungi produce these secondary metabolites (SMs) during the different phases of their growth, which are categorized into terpenoids, alkaloids, polyketides, and non-ribosomal peptides. These SMs exhibit significant biological activity, which contributes to the formulation of novel pharmaceuticals, biopesticides, and environmental bioremediation agents. Nowadays, these fungal-derived SMs are widely used in food and beverages, for fermentation, preservatives, protein sources, and in dairy industries. In healthcare, it is being used as an antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressive drug. The usage of modern tools of biotechnology can achieve an increase in demand for these SMs and large-scale production. The present review comprehensively analyses the diversity of fungal SMs along with their emerging applications in healthcare, agriculture, environmental sustainability, and nutraceuticals. Here, the authors have reviewed the recent advancements in genetic engineering, metabolic pathway manipulation, and synthetic biology to improve the production and yield of these SMs. Advancement in fermentation techniques, bioprocessing, and co-cultivation approaches for large-scale production of SMs. Investigators further highlighted the importance of omics technologies in understanding the regulation and biosynthesis of SMs, which offers an understanding of novel applications in drug discovery and sustainable agriculture. Finally, the authors have addressed the potential for genetic manipulation and biotechnological innovations for further exploitation of fungal SMs for commercial and environmental benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fermented feed is an important unconventional protein feed source, which is the decomposition of high-salt, high-fiber, and high-starch ingredients and cultivation of more absorbable bacterial proteins. During the fermentation process, different types of raw materials correspond to different fermentation strategies and complex flora cultivation modes, and the salt-tolerant system dominated by Bacillus, the bacteriostatic system dominated by Lactobacillus, and the fiber-degrading system dominated by Mycobacterium have their own adaptive ranges. The article summarizes the coping strategies of different fermentation raw materials, aiming to provide theoretical basis and reference basis for the further development of novel unconventional protein feeds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungi and their natural products, like secondary metabolites, have gained a huge demand in the last decade due to their increasing applications in healthcare, environmental cleanup, and biotechnology-based industries. The fungi produce these secondary metabolites (SMs) during the different phases of their growth, which are categorized into terpenoids, alkaloids, polyketides, and non-ribosomal peptides. These SMs exhibit significant biological activity, which contributes to the formulation of novel pharmaceuticals, biopesticides, and environmental bioremediation agents. Nowadays, these fungal-derived SMs are widely used in food and beverages, for fermentation, preservatives, protein sources, and in dairy industries. In healthcare, it is being used as an antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressive drug. The usage of modern tools of biotechnology can achieve an increase in demand for these SMs and large-scale production. The present review comprehensively analyses the diversity of fungal SMs along with their emerging applications in healthcare, agriculture, environmental sustainability, and nutraceuticals. Here, the authors have reviewed the recent advancements in genetic engineering, metabolic pathway manipulation, and synthetic biology to improve the production and yield of these SMs. Advancement in fermentation techniques, bioprocessing, and co-cultivation approaches for large-scale production of SMs. Investigators further highlighted the importance of omics technologies in understanding the regulation and biosynthesis of SMs, which offers an understanding of novel applications in drug discovery and sustainable agriculture. Finally, the authors have addressed the potential for genetic manipulation and biotechnological innovations for further exploitation of fungal SMs for commercial and environmental benefits.

Abstract Mycoprotein is critical in a dietary shift toward a more sustainable food system. However, the strain improvement for enhancing mycoprotein via genetic manipulation is lacking. Here, we investigated the functions of proteins related to ubiquitin and small ubiquitin‐like modifier (SUMO) modifications using a gene‐knockout strategy in Fusarium venenatum, a mycoprotein fungus closely related to the fungal genetics model species Fusarium graminearum. Among the candidate genes, we specifically focused on the putative SUMO‐associated gene UBQ14 based on phenotypic characteristics in F. graminearum. In the FvUBQ14 knockout mutant in F. venenatum, nutritional profiles showed prominent differences in amino acid and fatty acid composition compared to the wild‐type strain. Furthermore, through proteomic analysis, we confirmed that the loss of FvUBQ14 leads to metabolic changes, particular in amino acid biosynthesis and degradation, resulting in an increase in amino acid composition in F. venenatum. Our findings provide new insights into filamentous fungal food improvement through genetic engineering and contribute to advances in alternative protein industry.

Cheese whey is an industrial by-product that is generated in excess during the cheese production process in the dairy industry. Despite the potential utility of whey, it continues to pose environmental threats in the industry. This study comprehensively evaluates the utilization of two fermentation techniques (solid-state fermentation and submerged fermentation) for producing fungal biomass from cheese whey powder, employing Aspergillus oryzae, Rhizopus oryzae, and Neurospora intermedia for sustainable food production. It has been observed that submerged fermentation is more effective in increasing the protein content of whey powder compared to solid-state fermentation. The highest biomass yield was achieved with A. oryzae (5.29 g/L, 0.176 g biomass/g substrate), followed by N. intermedia (3.63 g/L, 0.121 g biomass/g substrate), and R. oryzae (1.9 g/L, 0.063 g biomass/g substrate). In the bubble column reactor, the protein content of the substrate (78.65 g/kg) increased by 165.54 and 176.69% with A. oryzae (208.85 g/kg) and N. intermedia (217.62 g/kg), respectively. This study has demonstrated that whey powder can be converted into protein-rich biomass through fungal bioconversion. The obtained biomass has the potential to be developed as an alternative food and feed source, contributing to waste management and sustainable food production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycoprotein is an alternative protein produced through fungal fermentation. However, it typically relies on refined glucose syrup derived from starch, which can be costly and unsustainable. This study investigates the potential of soybean processing by-products (okara and soy whey) as alternative substrates for producing mycoprotein using Aspergillus oryzae. A. oryzae was cultured for 7 days at 30 °C in diluted okara (1:50) and soy whey (1:1) with or without agitation (100 rpm). Soy whey produced higher biomass yields (369.2–408.8 mg dry biomass/g dry substrate), but had a lower biomass concentration (0.783–0.867 g dry weight/L). Conversely, okara produced a higher biomass concentration (2.02 g dry weight/L) with a yield of 114.7 mg dry biomass/g dry substrate. However, biomass formation in okara was only observed in static conditions, as agitation caused biomass to entangle with soy pulp, hampering its production. Additionally, okara tended to release protein into the media, while soy whey accumulated protein within the biomass, reaching up to 53% w/w protein content. The results of this study provide a promising approach to addressing both soybean processing waste reduction and food security concerns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed, for the first time, to determine the nutritional composition, beta-glucan and ergosterol contents, phenolic compound composition, and biological and functional activities of a novel mycoprotein produced through a bioconversion process of Durvillaea spp., a brown seaweed. An untargeted metabolomics approach was employed to screen metabolites and annotate molecules with nutraceutical properties. Two products, each representing a distinct consortia of co-cultured fungi, named Myco 1 and Myco 2, were analysed in this study. These consortia demonstrated superior properties compared to those of Durvillaea spp., showing significant increases in total protein (~238%), amino acids (~219%), and β-D-glucans (~112%). The protein contains all essential amino acids, a low fatty acid content, and exhibits high antioxidant activity (21.5–25.5 µmol TE/g). Additionally, Myco 2 exhibited the highest anti-alpha-glucosidase activity (IC50 = 16.5 mg/mL), and Myco 1 exhibited notable anti-lipase activity (IC50 = 10.5 mg/mL). Among the 69 top differentially abundant metabolites screened, 8 nutraceutical compounds were present in relatively high concentrations among the identified mycoproteins. The proteins and polysaccharides in the mycoprotein may play a crucial role in the formation and stabilization of emulsions, identifying it as a potent bioemulsifier. In conclusion, the bioconversion of Durvillaea spp. results in a mycoprotein with high-quality protein, significant nutritional and functional value, and prebiotic and nutraceutical potential due to the production of unique bioactive compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Featured Application: Single-cell protein is a type of protein derived from fungi and it has gained attention as a meat substitute due to its high protein content, low fat content, and specific texture. However, this type of protein can be used in the development of functional foods as well as additive to high-protein products, protein bars, shakes, snacks, dairy alternatives, etc. In recent years, there has been an increasing demand for new sources of protein, both for human and animal nutrition. In addition to alternative sources of protein, such as algae or edible insects, protein obtained from yeast and mold biomass is becoming more and more important. The main fungal protein producers are the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Candida utilis, Yarrowia lipolytica, and the molds Fusarium venenatum, Aspergillus oryzae, and Monascus purpureus. The production of fungal protein has many advantages, including the ability to regulate the amino acid composition, high protein content in dry matter, the possibility of production in a continuous process, independence from climatic factors, and the possibility of using waste substrates as ingredients of media. One of the disadvantages is the high content of nucleic acids, which generates the need for additional purification procedures before use in food. However, a number of enzymatic, chemical, and physical methods have been developed to reduce the content of these compounds. The paper presents the current state of knowledge about fungal producers, production and purification methods, the global market, as well as opportunities and challenges for single-cell protein (SCP) production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing human population and the consequent rise in food demand will make it progressively difficult to access a diet containing sufficient nutrients in the future. The availability of current plant and animal-based foods depends on climate and has negative effects on the environment in longterm. Therefore, researchers are looking for alternative sources to facilitate, and promote the transition to a sustainable diet. Filamentous fungi can break down complex substrates and convert them into valuable products. Fungal biomass obtained through fermentation is a source of important essential compounds such as proteins, enzymes, antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, polyunsaturated fatty acids, organic acids, and fibers. The most well-known commercial example of an alternative food source with meat-like texture produced from the biomass of a filamentous fungus, Fusarium venenatum, is Quorn. Recent studies have focused on the development of high-value-added products, and the achievement of sustainability by utilizing filamentous fungi to process food industry waste and by-products. This review covers studies on biomass production from food waste or by-products using filamentous fungi, its composition, and its effects on health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meat-based foods have significant environmental impacts that are lower for plant-based meat alternatives. Fungi-based mycoprotein offers another alternative to meat, but its comparative environmental impacts have not been comprehensively reviewed. We identified life cycle assessments (LCAs) of mycoprotein-based meat alternatives using ProQuest, Scopus and Web of Science, and the grey literature. Studies were included if they were published in the English language from 1 January 2013 until 18 September 2023, reported process-based LCAs with functional units by product weight, and reported any environmental impact measure, system boundary, or region. Data for mycoprotein was compared against plant-based meat alternatives for base-protein, burgers, mince and sausages, and against meats. Five LCAs of mycoprotein-based products were identified. Greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) were lower for mycoprotein (0.73 kgCO2eq/kg) compared to soy (1.21 kgCO2eq/kg) or pea protein concentrate (1.91 kgCO2eq/kg). GHGe for mycoprotein-based product types were lower than or comparable to equivalent plant-based products, and lower compared to meat. GHGe from the ingredient production stage were generally lower for mycoprotein-based products compared to plant-based products. Further data are needed to compare land use and water scarcity impacts. Mycoprotein offers clear environmental advantages over meat, but distinctions between mycoprotein and plant-based alternatives require more comprehensive data.

Whole-body tissue protein turnover is regulated, in part, by the postprandial rise in plasma amino acid concentrations, although minimal data exist on the amino acid response following non-animal-derived protein consumption. We hypothesised that the ingestion of novel plant- and algae-derived dietary protein sources would elicit divergent plasma amino acid responses when compared with vegan- and animal-derived control proteins. Twelve healthy young (male (m)/female (f): 6/6; age: 22 ± 1 years) and 10 healthy older (m/f: 5/5; age: 69 ± 2 years) adults participated in a randomised, double-blind, cross-over trial. During each visit, volunteers consumed 30 g of protein from milk, mycoprotein, pea, lupin, spirulina or chlorella. Repeated arterialised venous blood samples were collected at baseline and over a 5-h postprandial period to assess circulating amino acid, glucose and insulin concentrations. Protein ingestion increased plasma total and essential amino acid concentrations (P < 0·001), to differing degrees between sources (P < 0·001), and the increase was further modulated by age (P < 0·001). Postprandial maximal plasma total and essential amino acid concentrations were highest for pea (2828 ± 106 and 1480 ± 51 µmol·l−1) and spirulina (2809 ± 99 and 1455 ± 49 µmol·l−1) and lowest for chlorella (2053 ± 83 and 983 ± 35 µmol·l−1) (P < 0·001), but were not affected by age (P > 0·05). Postprandial total and essential amino acid availabilities were highest for pea, spirulina and mycoprotein and lowest for chlorella (all P < 0·05), but no effect of age was observed (P > 0·05). The ingestion of a variety of novel non-animal-derived dietary protein sources elicits divergent plasma amino acid responses, which are further modulated by age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternative proteins have gained popularity as consumers look for foods that are healthy, nutritious, and sustainable. Plant proteins, precision fermentation-derived proteins, cell-cultured proteins, algal proteins, and mycoproteins are the major types of alternative proteins that have emerged in recent years. This review addresses the major alternative-protein categories and reviews their definitions, current market statuses, production methods, and regulations in different countries, safety assessments, nutrition statuses, functionalities and applications, and, finally, sensory properties and consumer perception. Knowledge relative to traditional dairy proteins is also addressed. Opportunities and challenges associated with these proteins are also discussed. Future research directions are proposed to better understand these technologies and to develop consumer-acceptable final products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cheese whey is an industrial by-product that is generated in excess during the cheese production process in the dairy industry. Despite the potential utility of whey, it continues to pose environmental threats in the industry. This study comprehensively evaluates the utilization of two fermentation techniques (solid-state fermentation and submerged fermentation) for producing fungal biomass from cheese whey powder, employing Aspergillus oryzae, Rhizopus oryzae, and Neurospora intermedia for sustainable food production. It has been observed that submerged fermentation is more effective in increasing the protein content of whey powder compared to solid-state fermentation. The highest biomass yield was achieved with A. oryzae (5.29 g/L, 0.176 g biomass/g substrate), followed by N. intermedia (3.63 g/L, 0.121 g biomass/g substrate), and R. oryzae (1.9 g/L, 0.063 g biomass/g substrate). In the bubble column reactor, the protein content of the substrate (78.65 g/kg) increased by 165.54 and 176.69% with A. oryzae (208.85 g/kg) and N. intermedia (217.62 g/kg), respectively. This study has demonstrated that whey powder can be converted into protein-rich biomass through fungal bioconversion. The obtained biomass has the potential to be developed as an alternative food and feed source, contributing to waste management and sustainable food production.

Substituting dietary meat and fish for mycoprotein, a fungal-derived food source rich in protein and fibre, decreases circulating cholesterol concentrations in laboratory-controlled studies. However, whether these findings can be translated to a home-based setting, and to decrease cholesterol concentrations in overweight and hypercholesterolemic individuals, remains to be established. We investigated whether a remotely-delivered, home-based dietary intervention of mycoprotein-containing food products would affect various circulating cholesterol moieties and other markers of cardio-metabolic health in overweight (BMI >27.5 kg⋅m−2) and hypercholesterolaemic (>5.0 mmol⋅L−1) adults. Seventy-two participants were randomized into a controlled, parallel-group trial conducted in a free-living setting, in which they received home deliveries of either meat/fish control products (CON; n = 39; BMI 33 ± 1 kg⋅m−2; 13 males, 26 females) or mycoprotein-containing food products (MYC; n = 33; BMI 32 ± 1 kg⋅m−2; 13 males, 20 females) for 4 weeks. Fingertip blood samples were collected and sent via postal service before and after the dietary intervention period and analysed for concentrations of serum lipids, blood glucose and c-peptide. Serum total cholesterol concentrations were unchanged throughout the intervention in CON, but decreased by 5 ± 2 % in MYC (from 5.4 ± 0.2 to 5.1 ± 0.2 mmol⋅L−1; P < 0.05). Serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were also unchanged in CON, but decreased in MYC by 10 ± 3 % and 6 ± 2 % (both by 0.3 ± 0.1 mmol⋅L−1; P < 0.05). Serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and free triglyceride concentrations were unaffected in CON or MYC. Post-intervention, MYC displayed lower mean blood glucose (3.7 ± 0.2 versus 4.3 ± 0.2 mmol⋅L−1) and c-peptide (779 ± 76 vs. 1064 ± 86 pmol⋅L−1) concentrations (P < 0.05) vs. CON. We show that a home-based dietary intervention of mycoprotein-containing food products effectively lowers circulating cholesterol concentrations in overweight, hypercholesterolemic adults. This demonstrates that mycoprotein consumption is a feasible and ecologically valid dietary strategy to improve markers of cardio-metabolic health in an at-risk population under free living conditions. NCT04773483 (https://classic.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04773483). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research accumulated over the past decades has shown that mycoprotein could serve as a healthy and safe alternative protein source, offering a viable substitute for animal- and plant-derived proteins. This study evaluated the impact of substituting whey protein with fungal-derived mycoprotein at different levels (10%, 20%, and 30%) on the quality of high-protein nutrition bars (HPNBs). It focused on nutritional content, textural changes over storage, and sensory properties. Initially, all bars displayed similar hardness, but storage time significantly affected textural properties. In the early storage period (0–5 days), hardness increased at a modest rate of 0.206 N/day to 0.403 N/day. This rate dramatically escalated from 1.13 N/day to 1.36 N/day after 5 days, indicating a substantial textural deterioration over time. Bars with lower mycoprotein levels (10%) exhibited slower hardening rates compared with those with higher substitution levels (20% and 30%), pointing to a correlation between mycoprotein content and increased bar hardness during storage. Protein digestibility was assessed through in vitro gastric and intestinal phases. Bars with no or low-to-medium levels of mycoprotein substitution (PB00, PB10, and PB20) showed significantly higher digestibility (40.3~43.8%) compared with those with the highest mycoprotein content (PB30, 32.9%). However, digestibility rates for all mycoprotein-enriched bars were lower than those observed for whey-protein-only bars (PB00, 84.5%), especially by the end of the intestinal digestion phase. The introduction of mycoprotein enriched the bars' dietary fiber content and improved their odor, attributing a fresh mushroom-like smell. These findings suggest that modest levels of mycoprotein can enhance nutritional value and maintain sensory quality, although higher substitution levels adversely affect texture and protein digestibility. This study underscores the potential of mycoprotein as a functional ingredient in HPNBs, balancing nutritional enhancement with sensory acceptability, while also highlighting the challenges of textural deterioration and reduced protein digestibility at higher substitution levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edible mushrooms have been cherished worldwide because of their nutraceutical and medicinal properties. They are recognized as the new superfood for the future due to their low-calorie content, high-protein content, low lipid levels, low cholesterol levels, and abundance of essential vitamins. The fruiting body of edible mushrooms contains a plethora of primary and secondary metabolites. However, submerged cultivation is a more reliable and controlled way of production of mycelium biomass and many bioactive compounds. Several bioactive metabolites present in mushrooms possess a range of beneficial properties, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and anti-COVID-19 activities. Consumers have turned more intrigued in mushroom-containing products as the world needs to diversify its protein sources to meet the growing demand for protein. In this context, mushrooms are viewed as a promising source of bioactive chemicals that can be employed as an alternative to meat products. This review aims to summarise the most recent data regarding the beneficial health effects and the development of mushroom-based food products. • Cultivation techniques of mushrooms and extraction of their bioactive compounds. • Health promoting potential of edible mushrooms has been explored. • Therapeutic effects of bioactive compounds from mushrooms have been discussed. • Application of mushrooms in food products to boost their nutritional quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Populations in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) typically consume less than the recommended daily amount of protein. Alternative protein (AP) sources could help combat malnutrition, but this requires careful consideration of elements needed to further establish AP products in LMIC. Key considerations include technological, nutritional, safety, social, and economic challenges. This perspective analyzes these considerations in achieving dietary diversity in LMIC, using a combination of traditional and novel protein sources with high nutritional value, namely, soy, mycoprotein, and cultivated meat. Technological approaches to modulate the technofunctionality and bitter off-tastes of plant-sourced proteins facilitate processing and ensure consumer acceptance. Economic considerations for inputs, infrastructure for production, and transportation represent key elements to scale up AP. Dietary diversification is indispensable and LMIC cannot rely on plant proteins alone to provide adequate protein intake sustainably. Investments in infrastructure and innovation are urgently needed to offer diverse sources of protein in LMIC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Meat has historically been an essential source of animal‐based protein. However, due to population growth, health problems linked to the consumption of red meat, and concerns over environmental challenges, there is an increased need for alternative protein sources. Various plant‐based meat alternatives have recently been explored, with ongoing advancements in industrial‐scale production. Mycoprotein has been proposed as a sustainable alternative to meat due to its distinctive functional food properties and fibrous structure. However, some challenges still prevail related to large‐scale production, texture, sustainability, and acceptability of mycoprotein products. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of scientific research on mycoprotein, focusing on nutritional composition, functional properties, production technology, and health benefits. This study also examines the current challenges related to product safety, environmental impact, and prospects of this innovative food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternative meat is a protein food produced by cultivating animal cells, processing insects, and extracting vegetable raw materials, rather than slaughtering animals, and has been suggested as an alternative to conventional meat to solve the current factory farming and animal rights problems. The global alternative meat market is expected to reach $29 billion by 2035 from $1.78 billion in 2025. Alternative meat has significantly lower water and land use and greenhouse gas emissions compared to conventional meat production methods and is free from the emerging animal ethics problem. However, with the current technology, there is a limit to reproducing the taste, texture, and nutritional content of actual meat, so continuous technology development is needed. The negative perception of some consumers and the absence of alternative meat-related systems are also challenges to be solved. This paper deals with the types, characteristics, market status, and the latest technology trends of alternative meat. In addition, we aim to contribute to the development and establishment of alternative meat by looking at alternative meat from the perspective of consumption and investigating the challenges that the alternative meat industry must solve to establish itself as a future food source.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the recent development of meat analog, industrialization, and the related legal changes worldwide. Summarizing the current status of the industrialization of meat analog, studies on plant-based meat, mycoprotein, and edible insects were mainly conducted to investigate their sensory properties (texture, taste, flavor, and color resembling meat), nutritional and safety evaluations, acquisition method of meat alternatives, and commercialization. Cultured meat is mainly studied for developing muscle satellite cell acquisition and support techniques or materials for the formation of structures. However, these technologies have not reached the level for active industrialization. Even though there are differences in the food categories and labeling between countries, it is common to cause confusion or to relay false information to consumers; therefore, it is important to provide accurate information. In this study, there were some differences in the food classification and food definition (labeling) contents for each country and state depending on the product shape or form, raw materials, and ingredients. Therefore, this study can provide information about the current research available on meat alternatives, improve regulation, and clarify laws related to the meat analog industry, which can potentially grow alongside the livestock industry.

Mycoprotein is an alternative protein produced through fungal fermentation. However, it typically relies on refined glucose syrup derived from starch, which can be costly and unsustainable. This study investigates the potential of soybean processing by-products (okara and soy whey) as alternative substrates for producing mycoprotein using Aspergillus oryzae. A. oryzae was cultured for 7 days at 30 °C in diluted okara (1:50) and soy whey (1:1) with or without agitation (100 rpm). Soy whey produced higher biomass yields (369.2–408.8 mg dry biomass/g dry substrate), but had a lower biomass concentration (0.783–0.867 g dry weight/L). Conversely, okara produced a higher biomass concentration (2.02 g dry weight/L) with a yield of 114.7 mg dry biomass/g dry substrate. However, biomass formation in okara was only observed in static conditions, as agitation caused biomass to entangle with soy pulp, hampering its production. Additionally, okara tended to release protein into the media, while soy whey accumulated protein within the biomass, reaching up to 53% w/w protein content. The results of this study provide a promising approach to addressing both soybean processing waste reduction and food security concerns.

This study aimed, for the first time, to determine the nutritional composition, beta-glucan and ergosterol contents, phenolic compound composition, and biological and functional activities of a novel mycoprotein produced through a bioconversion process of Durvillaea spp., a brown seaweed. An untargeted metabolomics approach was employed to screen metabolites and annotate molecules with nutraceutical properties. Two products, each representing a distinct consortia of co-cultured fungi, named Myco 1 and Myco 2, were analysed in this study. These consortia demonstrated superior properties compared to those of Durvillaea spp., showing significant increases in total protein (~238%), amino acids (~219%), and β-D-glucans (~112%). The protein contains all essential amino acids, a low fatty acid content, and exhibits high antioxidant activity (21.5–25.5 µmol TE/g). Additionally, Myco 2 exhibited the highest anti-alpha-glucosidase activity (IC50 = 16.5 mg/mL), and Myco 1 exhibited notable anti-lipase activity (IC50 = 10.5 mg/mL). Among the 69 top differentially abundant metabolites screened, 8 nutraceutical compounds were present in relatively high concentrations among the identified mycoproteins. The proteins and polysaccharides in the mycoprotein may play a crucial role in the formation and stabilization of emulsions, identifying it as a potent bioemulsifier. In conclusion, the bioconversion of Durvillaea spp. results in a mycoprotein with high-quality protein, significant nutritional and functional value, and prebiotic and nutraceutical potential due to the production of unique bioactive compounds.

In recent years, there has been an increasing demand for new sources of protein, both for human and animal nutrition. In addition to alternative sources of protein, such as algae or edible insects, protein obtained from yeast and mold biomass is becoming more and more important. The main fungal protein producers are the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Candida utilis, Yarrowia lipolytica, and the molds Fusarium venenatum, Aspergillus oryzae, and Monascus purpureus. The production of fungal protein has many advantages, including the ability to regulate the amino acid composition, high protein content in dry matter, the possibility of production in a continuous process, independence from climatic factors, and the possibility of using waste substrates as ingredients of media. One of the disadvantages is the high content of nucleic acids, which generates the need for additional purification procedures before use in food. However, a number of enzymatic, chemical, and physical methods have been developed to reduce the content of these compounds. The paper presents the current state of knowledge about fungal producers, production and purification methods, the global market, as well as opportunities and challenges for single-cell protein (SCP) production.

ABSTRACTMalnutrition is increasing across the globe owing to urbanization, poverty, and climatic changes. In the current circumstances, alternative and unexplored sources of food and nutrients are getting attention. The current sources of food cannot meet the ever-increasing population demand. The demand for animal-source protein is estimated be double due to a projected 50% rise in the world population by the year 2050. Moreover, global animal protein supply chains are not only vulnerable to natural disasters but also a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Mycoprotein is considered an excellent alternative to animal protein due to its amino acid profile and cost-effectiveness. Mycoprotein is produced by Fusarium venenatum, a naturally occurring fungus that can be used as a substitute for conventional animal protein sources. Mycoprotein is high in protein and fiber while low in cholesterol, fat, sugar, and salt. Mycoprotein offers excellent functional and therapeutic potential in mitigating various health disorders. Furthermore, it helps maintain muscle synthesis and optimal plasma and cholesterol levels, regulating insulin, glucose, and satiety. This review is focused on the mycoprotein’s origin and production, with a particular emphasis on its nutritional, health, and economic opportunities and challenges.

Purpose: Mycoprotein is a relatively novel food source produced from the biomass of Fusarium venenatum. It has previously been shown to improve CVD risk markers in intervention trials when it is compared against total meat. It has not hitherto been assessed specifically for benefits relative to red and processed meat. Methods: We leveraged samples from Mycomeat, an investigator-blind randomised crossover controlled trial in metabolically healthy male adults (n = 20), randomised to consume 240 g/day of red and processed meat for 14 days followed by mycoprotein, or vice versa. Blood biochemical indices were a priori defined secondary endpoints. Results: Mycoprotein consumption led to a 6.74% reduction in total cholesterol (P = 0.02) and 12.3% reduction in LDL cholesterol (P = 0.02) from baseline values. Change in fasted triglycerides was not significantly different between diets (+ 0.19 ± 0.11 mmol/l with mycoprotein, P = 0.09). There was a small but significant reduction in waist circumference for mycoprotein relative to meat (− 0.95 ± 0.42 cm, P = 0.04). Following the mycoprotein diet, mean systolic (− 2.41 ± 1.89 mmHg, P = 0.23) and diastolic blood pressure (− 0.80 ± 1.23 mmHg, P = 0.43) were reduced from baseline. There were no statistically significant effects of the intervention on urinary sodium, nitrite or TMAO; while urinary potassium (+ 126.12 ± 50.30 mmol/l, P = 0.02) and nitrate (+ 2.12 ± 0.90 mmol/l, P = 0.04) were both significantly higher with mycoprotein relative to meat. The study population comprised metabolically healthy adults, therefore, changes in plasma lipids had little effect on cardiovascular risk scores (− 0.34% FRS for mycoprotein P = 0.24). Conclusions: These results confirm potential cardiovascular benefits when displacing red and processed meat with mycoprotein in the diet. Longer trials in higher risk study populations are needed to fully elucidate suggested benefits for blood pressure and body composition. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03944421. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study is motivated by the need to address the environmental issues related to dairy and ethanol plant wastewaters and to generate valuable products, including mycoprotein and bioenergy, through a novel three-phase fungi-based biorefinery. In the initial phase of the biorefining process, the cultivation conditions of Aspergillus oryzae were optimized. The objective was to maximize mycoprotein production using wastewater as a resource. The effluent generated during the first phase of the biorefinery underwent the second phase, where it was subjected to cultivation with Neurospora intermedia. In the third phase, the effluent obtained from the fungal growth underwent anaerobic digestion as a final treatment step, producing 306 NmL methane/g VS. This three-phase biorefinery contributed to a remarkable reduction in the chemical oxygen demand level of the wastewater by 56.8%, 11.6%, and 28.1% in each respective phase. Overall, the three-phase biorefinery process yielded promising results, generating 17.8 kg of mycoprotein and 5.0 Nm3 of biomethane per cubic meter of wastewater. The mycoprotein obtained through this process contains noteworthy quantities of essential amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals. These characteristics open up opportunities for substituting conventional feed in aquaculture with the produced mycoprotein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enzymatic, acidic, and alkaline treatments were applied to extract insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) from mycoprotein. The structural properties of IDFs were elucidated using scanning electron microscopy, molecular weight analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and monosaccharide composition analysis. The results indicated that all three treatment methods led to IDFs with higher water holding capacity and oil holding capacity compared to untreated mycoprotein. Moreover, the alkali and enzymatic treated IDFs displayed more loose and porous structures, resulting in higher water holding capacity, oil holding capacity, and emulsifying activity compared to citric acid treated IDFs. The findings of this study can help for better understanding of the application of mycoprotein IDFs and optimizing the IDFs extraction from filamentous fungi.

Ingestion of mycoprotein stimulates skeletal muscle protein synthesis (MPS) rates to a greater extent than concentrated milk protein when matched for leucine content, potentially attributable to the wholefood nature of mycoprotein. We hypothesised that bolus ingestion of mycoprotein as part of its wholefood matrix would stimulate MPS rates to a greater extent compared with a leucine-matched bolus of protein concentrated from mycoprotein. Twenty-four healthy young (age, 21 ± 2 years; BMI, 24 ± 3 kg.m2) males received primed, continuous infusions of L-[ ring -2H5]phenylalanine and completed a bout of unilateral resistance leg exercise before ingesting either 70 g mycoprotein (MYC; 31·4 g protein, 2·5 g leucine; n 12) or 38·2 g of a protein concentrate obtained from mycoprotein (PCM; 28·0 g protein, 2·5 g leucine; n 12). Blood and muscle samples (vastus lateralis) were taken pre- and (4 h) post-exercise/protein ingestion to assess postabsorptive and postprandial myofibrillar protein fractional synthetic rates (FSR) in resting and exercised muscle. Protein ingestion increased plasma essential amino acid and leucine concentrations (P < 0·0001), but more rapidly (both 60 v. 90 min; P < 0·0001) and to greater magnitudes (1367 v. 1346 μmol·l–1 and 298 v. 283 μmol·l–1, respectively; P < 0·0001) in PCM compared with MYC. Protein ingestion increased myofibrillar FSR (P < 0·0001) in both rested (MYC, Δ0·031 ± 0·007 %·h–1 and PCM, Δ0·020 ± 0·008 %·h–1) and exercised (MYC, Δ0·057 ± 0·011 %·h–1 and PCM, Δ0·058 ± 0·012 %·h–1) muscle, with no differences between conditions (P > 0·05). Mycoprotein ingestion results in equivalent postprandial stimulation of resting and post-exercise myofibrillar protein synthesis rates irrespective of whether it is consumed within or without its wholefood matrix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to replace chicken breast by mycoprotein in nuggets and optimizing the sensory and technological properties. In the first step of the study, 14 formulations were prepared by mixture design to evaluate the impact of three binding agents (as independent variables): soy protein isolate, phosphate, and carrageenan on sensory properties. Then, the optimized formulation of mycoprotein nugget (with higher acceptability) was characterized and compared to chicken nugget (control) from texture, color, and physicochemical aspects. The texture attributes including hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, and chewiness of the optimized sample (1.37 kg, 0.70 mm, 0.56, and 0.53 kg.mm) had no significant difference (p >.05) compared to control. Based on the results, optimized sample had a lower lightness and yellowness (a*, b*, and L* were 3.06, 18.62, and 59.23, respectively) rather than the similar value of the control (2.20, 21.27, and 79.10, respectively), which indicated carrageenan did not lead to any significant impact (p >.05) on the color. Also, mycoprotein nugget showed 33% lower cooking loss in comparison to control. Moisture, protein, lipid, and ash in optimized sample were 57.9 ± 1.9, 24.1 ± 1.0, 13.2 ± 1.2, and 2.1 ± 0.5, respectively. Investigation on physicochemical properties shows an acceptable characterization in optimized sample in comparison to control. The results of this study present an opportunity to produce nonmeat nuggets with similar texture and acceptable sensory and technological characteristics by using mycoprotein as meat alternative. The production of mycoprotein is eco‐friendly, not dependent on climate (flood and drought) and landscape limitation, which is an important aspect in meat alternatives in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Climate change is a serious threat to human wellbeing and development. Global reduction of meat intake is key to addressing climate change and other modern sustainability challenges. Plant-based and mycoprotein-based meat substitutes are predicted to play a key role in the reduction of meat intake; however, their impact on human health is unclear. The main objective of this meta-analysis was to assess the short-term effects of meat substitutes on important cardiometabolic biomarkers (total cholesterol, TC; LDL-cholesterol, LDL-C; HDL-cholesterol, HDL-C; triglycerides, TG; systolic blood pressure, SBP; diastolic blood pressure, DBP; fasting blood glucose, FBG; weight) in controlled clinical trials. Methods: Embase and MEDLINE were searched to identify controlled clinical trials with meat substitute interventions and cardiometabolic biomarker outcomes. Standardised mean differences in TC, LDL-C, HDL-C, TG, FBG, SBP, DBP, and weight and 95% confidence intervals were pooled using a random effects model. Risk of bias, heterogeneity, sensitivity, and publication bias were assessed. Of the 934 records identified, 12 studies met the inclusion criteria. In the pooled analyses, the consumption of meat substitutes was associated with significantly lower TC (−0.50 mmol/L [95% CIs −0.70, −0.29]), LDL-C (−0.39 mmol/L [−0.57, −0.21]), and TG (−0.15 mmol/L [−0.29, −0.01]), non-significantly lower FBG (−0.08 [−0.23, 0.08]), SBP (−0.32 [−1.79, 1.41]), and weight (−0.12 [−1.52, 1.27]), and non-significantly higher HDL-C (0.01 [−0.02, 0.05]) and DBP (0.49 [−0.30, 1.28]). There was evidence of publication bias, and some heterogeneity was detected. The certainty of evidence was moderate for the TC and HDL-C results, low for the LDL-C, TG, SBP, DBP, and weight results, and very low for the FBG results. Conclusions: Replacement of some or all meat with plant-based or mycoprotein-based substitutes may lower TC, LDL-C, and TG.

High-fibre diets are beneficial for many health outcomes via a wide range of mechanisms including gut microbiota fermentation-derived short-chain fatty acid (SCFAs) production. Mycoprotein (marketed as Quorn) is a food high in fibre (>6 g/100 g wet weight (ww)) and protein (13 g/100 g ww) which has been shown to have positive effects on glycemic control and appetite in humans. Nevertheless, the mechanisms underpinning this are poorly understood. Here, we investigate the changes in gut microbiota α- and β-diversity, pH and SCFAs production in faecal batch cultures supplemented with pre-digested mycoprotein (Quorn), soy, chicken and control (unsupplemented) using eight fresh stools from healthy donors. The results showed that pre-digested mycoprotein did not alter pH (p =.896), α- or β-diversity of the gut microbiota when compared to the control, soy, and chicken. Nevertheless, chicken led to a significant increase in total SCFAs post-24 h vs. control (+57.07 mmol/L, p =.01). In particular, propionate increased when compared to soy (+19.59 mmol/L, p =.03) and the control (+23.19 mmol/L, p <.01). No other differences in SCFAs were detected. In conclusion, pre-digested mycoprotein was not fermented in vitro by healthy gut microbiota in the settings of this experiment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The high-meat, low-fibre Western diet is strongly associated with colorectal cancer risk. Mycoprotein, produced from Fusarium venanatum, has been sold as a high-fibre alternative to meat for decades. Hitherto, the effects of mycoprotein in the human bowel have not been well considered. Here, we explored the effects of replacing a high red and processed meat intake with mycoprotein on markers of intestinal genotoxicity and gut health. Methods: Mycomeat (clinicaltrials.gov NCT03944421) was an investigator-blind, randomised, crossover dietary intervention trial. Twenty healthy male adults were randomised to consume 240 g day−1 red and processed meat for 2 weeks, with crossover to 2 weeks 240 g day−1 mycoprotein, separated by a 4-week washout period. Primary end points were faecal genotoxicity and genotoxins, while secondary end points comprised changes in gut microbiome composition and activity. Results: The meat diet increased faecal genotoxicity and nitroso compound excretion, whereas the weight-matched consumption of mycoprotein decreased faecal genotoxicity and nitroso compounds. In addition, meat intake increased the abundance of Oscillobacter and Alistipes, whereas mycoprotein consumption increased Lactobacilli, Roseburia and Akkermansia, as well as the excretion of short chain fatty acids. Conclusion: Replacing red and processed meat with the Fusarium-based meat alternative, mycoprotein, significantly reduces faecal genotoxicity and genotoxin excretion and increases the abundance of microbial genera with putative health benefits in the gut. This work demonstrates that mycoprotein may be a beneficial alternative to meat within the context of gut health and colorectal cancer prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predicted famines due to population increase created an interest in the development of protein alternatives during the 1950s. Currently, a renewed interest in protein alternatives has developed as a potential strategy to decrease the environmental impact of protein production and meet the global demand for protein as the population increases. Fusarium venenatum A3/5/3, the organism used for mycoprotein production has been commercially available since the 1980s, however new fungal protein companies are currently interested in scaling up production. To aid guide efforts in this domain, we created an economic model with over 340 inputs that examines the continuous production of mycoprotein utilizing airlift bioreactors. Utilizing a sensitivity analysis, we identified critical processing inputs and then developed a user-friendly Excel model that allows for the exploration of customized production scenarios for interested stakeholders. Our findings indicate that mycoprotein can be cost competitive with beef on a price per protein basis. The findings also indicate that mycoprotein may not be an economically competitive alternative for other types of commodity meats (chicken) or for inexpensive meat-derived products (pet food) that utilize offal or meat byproducts not traditionally consumed in the modern western diet.

Alternative proteins have gained popularity as consumers look for foods that are healthy, nutritious, and sustainable. Plant proteins, precision fermentation-derived proteins, cell-cultured proteins, algal proteins, and mycoproteins are the major types of alternative proteins that have emerged in recent years. This review addresses the major alternative-protein categories and reviews their definitions, current market statuses, production methods, and regulations in different countries, safety assessments, nutrition statuses, functionalities and applications, and, finally, sensory properties and consumer perception. Knowledge relative to traditional dairy proteins is also addressed. Opportunities and challenges associated with these proteins are also discussed. Future research directions are proposed to better understand these technologies and to develop consumer-acceptable final products.

Research accumulated over the past decades has shown that mycoprotein could serve as a healthy and safe alternative protein source, offering a viable substitute for animal- and plant-derived proteins. This study evaluated the impact of substituting whey protein with fungal-derived mycoprotein at different levels (10%, 20%, and 30%) on the quality of high-protein nutrition bars (HPNBs). It focused on nutritional content, textural changes over storage, and sensory properties. Initially, all bars displayed similar hardness, but storage time significantly affected textural properties. In the early storage period (0–5 days), hardness increased at a modest rate of 0.206 N/day to 0.403 N/day. This rate dramatically escalated from 1.13 N/day to 1.36 N/day after 5 days, indicating a substantial textural deterioration over time. Bars with lower mycoprotein levels (10%) exhibited slower hardening rates compared with those with higher substitution levels (20% and 30%), pointing to a correlation between mycoprotein content and increased bar hardness during storage. Protein digestibility was assessed through in vitro gastric and intestinal phases. Bars with no or low-to-medium levels of mycoprotein substitution (PB00, PB10, and PB20) showed significantly higher digestibility (40.3~43.8%) compared with those with the highest mycoprotein content (PB30, 32.9%). However, digestibility rates for all mycoprotein-enriched bars were lower than those observed for whey-protein-only bars (PB00, 84.5%), especially by the end of the intestinal digestion phase. The introduction of mycoprotein enriched the bars’ dietary fiber content and improved their odor, attributing a fresh mushroom-like smell. These findings suggest that modest levels of mycoprotein can enhance nutritional value and maintain sensory quality, although higher substitution levels adversely affect texture and protein digestibility. This study underscores the potential of mycoprotein as a functional ingredient in HPNBs, balancing nutritional enhancement with sensory acceptability, while also highlighting the challenges of textural deterioration and reduced protein digestibility at higher substitution levels.

The term mycoprotein refers to a protein-rich food made from the biomass of filamentous fungi that can be consumed as an alternative to meat. The purpose of this review is to summarize the scientific data published in the last two decades reporting on mycoprotein. This article examines the dietary, human health and environmental impact of replacing meat of animal origin with mycoprotein. Currently, mycoprotein can be found in a number of supermarkets in various forms. Expansion into other markets depends on cost reduction. Although scarce, the results of life-cycle analyzes of mycoprotein indicate that this meat substitute causes an environmental impact similar to that of chicken and pork. The purpose of this study is to inform physicians of the potential of mycoprotein for improvements in blood cholesterol concentration and glycemic response. Methods: Analysis and summary of refereed articles included in globally recognized scientific databases. In conclusion, mycoprotein reduces energy intake and insulin release in overweight volunteers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In recent years, there has been an increased motivation to reduce meat consumption globally due to environmental and health concerns, which has driven the development of meat substitutes. Filamentous fungal biomass, commonly known as mycoprotein, is a potential meat substitute since it is nutritious and has filaments to mimic meat fibrils. The current study aimed to investigate the potential use of a cheap substrate derived from the food industry, i.e., residual water in a tempeh factory, for mycoprotein production. The type of residual water, nutrient supplementation, optimum conditions for biomass production, and characteristics of the mycoprotein were determined. The results showed that the residual water from the first boiling with yeast extract addition gave the highest mycoprotein content. The optimum growth condition was a pH of 4.5 and agitation of 125 rpm, and it resulted in 7.76 g/L biomass. The mycoprotein contains 19.44% (w/w) protein with a high crude fiber content of 8.51% (w/w) and a low fat content of 1.56% (w/w). In addition, the amino acid and fatty acid contents are dominated by glutamic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are associated with an umami taste and are considered healthier foods. The current work reveals that the residual boiling water from the tempeh factory can be used to produce high-quality mycoprotein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Mycoprotein is a well-established and sustainably produced, protein-rich, high-fibre, whole food source derived from the fermentation of fungus. The present publication is based on a symposium held during the Nutrition Society Summer Conference 2022 in Sheffield that explored ‘Food for our Future: The Science Behind Sustainable Fungal Proteins’. A growing body of science links mycoprotein consumption with muscle/myofibrillar protein synthesis and improved cardiometabolic (principally lipid) markers. As described at this event, given the accumulating health and sustainability credentials of mycoprotein, there is great scope for fungal-derived mycoprotein to sit more prominently within future, updated food-based dietary guidelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Malnutrition is increasing across the globe owing to urbanization, poverty, and climatic changes. In the current circumstances, alternative and unexplored sources of food and nutrients are getting attention. The current sources of food cannot meet the ever-increasing population demand. The demand for animal-source protein is estimated be double due to a projected 50% rise in the world population by the year 2050. Moreover, global animal protein supply chains are not only vulnerable to natural disasters but also a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Mycoprotein is considered an excellent alternative to animal protein due to its amino acid profile and cost-effectiveness. Mycoprotein is produced by Fusarium venenatum, a naturally occurring fungus that can be used as a substitute for conventional animal protein sources. Mycoprotein is high in protein and fiber while low in cholesterol, fat, sugar, and salt. Mycoprotein offers excellent functional and therapeutic potential in mitigating various health disorders. Furthermore, it helps maintain muscle synthesis and optimal plasma and cholesterol levels, regulating insulin, glucose, and satiety. This review is focused on the mycoprotein's origin and production, with a particular emphasis on its nutritional, health, and economic opportunities and challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Fermenting edible filamentous fungi with food industry by-products, such as young apples, shows promise for producing mycoproteins and functional peptides. This study aimed to evaluate the production of mycoprotein by fermenting different edible-grade filamentous fungi using young apples as a substrate. Schizophyllum commune DS1 (DS1) demonstrated significant potential for generating mycoprotein, yielding 33.56 ± 0.82 %. From the hydrolysis of DS1 mycoprotein, three polypeptides were identified with the capacity of inhibiting nitric oxide synthase (iNOS): DNIQGITKPAIR (DR12), SDNAFGGR (SR8), and ASDPSGF (AF7). Computational analysis, including bioinformatics and molecular docking, indicated their high affinity for inhibiting iNOS, with binding energies of −452.8157 kcal/mol, −388.0222 kcal/mol, and −323.8843 kcal/mol, respectively. This binding was facilitated through various interactions such as electrostatic forces, π-π interactions, hydrogen bonds, and non-covalent interactions, resulting in potential anti-inflammatory properties. Furthermore, cell experiments using RAW264.7 macrophages demonstrated that these peptides effectively suppressed nitric oxide production in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, they reduced the production of inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), inducible iNOS, and cell apoptosis. In conclusion, this study presents a novel approach for developing plant-based mycoproteins and a new source for discovering food-derived bioactive peptides. [Display omitted] • Production of mycoprotein is achievable by fermenting edible fungi with young apples. • The three peptides derived from DS1 mycoprotein show anti-inflammatory potential. • DR12, SR8, and AF7 peptides bind to iNOS, thus inhibiting inflammation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]