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Halyomorpha halys, represents a significant threat to a diverse array of agricultural crops. The most prevalent method of control employed against H. halys in integrated fruit production is the use of chemical insecticides. Because of environmental concerns that arise from pesticide use, there is a pressing demand to identify alternative and more sustainable control measures that could serve as a potential substitute or supplement to conventional insecticides. Against this background, entomopathogenic fungi can be seen as a potential management tool worthy of further investigation. In the present study, the effects of egg spray treatments with two Beauveria bassiana-based mycopesticides and conidial suspensions of B. bassiana, B. pseudobassiana, Metarhizium brunneum and M. robertsii isolates were investigated under constant laboratory conditions (25 °C, 65% RH, 16L:8D). Egg hatching rate and nymphal mortality were recorded. Treatment of eggs with the selected fungi resulted in reduced nymph survival compared to a water-treated control. The fungal treatments did not significantly affect hatching success but increased mortality of first instar nymphs, with average mortality rates between 70% and 100% during development from egg to imago. The efficacy of the investigated fungi was demonstrated to be high under specific laboratory conditions, indicating a potential suitability of these fungi as biocontrol agents.

Plant pathogens with their abundance are harmful and cause huge damage to different agricultural crops and economy of a country as well as lead towards the shortage of food for humans. For their management, the utilization of entomopathogenic fungi is an eco-friendly technique, sustainable to the environment, safe for humans and has promising effect over chemical-based pesticides. This process requires a biochemical mechanism, including the production of enzymes, toxins, and other metabolites that facilitate host infection and invasion. Essential enzymes such as chitinase, proteinase, and lipase play a direct role in breaking down the host cuticle, the primary barrier to EPF (Entomopathogenic Fungi) infection. Additionally, secondary metabolites such as destruxins in Metarhizium, beauvericin in Beauveria, hirsutellides in Hirsutella, isarolides in Isaria, cordyols in Cordyceps, and vertihemipterins in Verticillium, among others, act both directly and indirectly to disable the defense mechanisms of insect hosts, thereby accelerating the EPF infection process. The chemical composition of these secondary metabolites varies, ranging from simple non-peptide pigments such as oosporine to highly complex piperazine derivatives such as vertihemiptellides. The biocontrol efficacy of EPF is extensively studied, with numerous fungal strains commercially available on a large scale for managing arthropod pests. This review emphasizes the role of proteins and enzymes against crop pathogens, detailing their mode of action, and describing the metabolites from entomopathogenic fungi and their biological activities. In doing so, these findings contribute to establishing a symbiotic equilibrium between agricultural productivity and environmental conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Halyomorpha halys, represents a significant threat to a diverse array of agricultural crops. The most prevalent method of control employed against H. halys in integrated fruit production is the use of chemical insecticides. Because of environmental concerns that arise from pesticide use, there is a pressing demand to identify alternative and more sustainable control measures that could serve as a potential substitute or supplement to conventional insecticides. Against this background, entomopathogenic fungi can be seen as a potential management tool worthy of further investigation. In the present study, the effects of egg spray treatments with two Beauveria bassiana-based mycopesticides and conidial suspensions of B. bassiana, B. pseudobassiana, Metarhizium brunneum and M. robertsii isolates were investigated under constant laboratory conditions (25 °C, 65% RH, 16L:8D). Egg hatching rate and nymphal mortality were recorded. Treatment of eggs with the selected fungi resulted in reduced nymph survival compared to a water-treated control. The fungal treatments did not significantly affect hatching success but increased mortality of first instar nymphs, with average mortality rates between 70% and 100% during development from egg to imago. The efficacy of the investigated fungi was demonstrated to be high under specific laboratory conditions, indicating a potential suitability of these fungi as biocontrol agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycopesticides are living preparations that use fungal cells, such as spores and hyphae, as active ingredients. They mainly include mycoinsecticides, mycofungicides, mycoherbicides and nematophagous fungi. The utilization of fungi for controlling agricultural pests can be traced back to approximately 1880, when entomopathogenic fungi were initially employed for this purpose. However, it was not until 1965 that the world's first mycopesticide, Beauveria bassiana, was registered as Boverin® in the former Soviet Union. In past decades, numerous novel mycopesticides have been developed for their lower R&D costs, as well as the environmentally friendly and safe nature. In this review, we investigated the mycopesticides situation of registration in USA, EU, China, Canada and Australia. Superisingly, it was found that the registered mycopesticides are extremely raised in recent years. Currently, the insecticides, fungicides (nematocides) and herbicides were respectively registered 27, 53 and 8 fungal strains. This paper also analyzes the main problems currently faced by mycopesticides and offers suggestions for their future development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concerns regarding the ecological and health risks posed by synthetic insecticides have instigated the exploration of alternative methods for controlling insects, such as entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) as biocontrol agents. Therefore, this review discusses their use as a potential alternative to chemical insecticides and especially focuses on the two major ones, Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae, as examples. First, this review exemplifies how B. bassiana- and M. anisopliae-based biopesticides are used in the world. Then, we discuss the mechanism of action by which EPF interacts with insects, focusing on the penetration of the cuticle and the subsequent death of the host. The interactions between EPF and the insect microbiome, as well as the enhancement of the insect immune response, are also summarized. Finally, this review presents recent research that N-glycans may play a role in eliciting an immune response in insects, resulting in the increased expression of immune-related genes and smaller peritrophic matrix pores, reducing insect midgut permeability. Overall, this paper provides an overview of the EPF in insect control and highlights the latest developments relating to the interaction between fungi and insect immunity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many tropical countries, studies to determine the shelf-life of biopesticides for commercialization and storage without refrigeration have been conducted under mild (≤ 25 °C) temperature regimes. Are these temperatures representative of non-refrigerated rural deposits? To answer this question, we set up trials in five Brazilian geographical regions. Representative temperatures were estimated using two distinct approaches: (1) calculation of the mean kinetic temperature (MKT) inside packages stored in rural deposits for up to 19 months, and (2) comparison of germination counts of fungi (Beauveria bassiana and Trichoderma spp.) kept under these conditions with those of conidia kept at constant temperatures. MKTs calculated for deposits located in the Northern, Northeastern, Central-Western, Southeastern, and Southern regions were 28.0, 26.7, 23.6, 22.2, and 21.7 °C, respectively. For all regions, MKTs calculated for the long-term trials were very close (≤ 0.5 °C) to the values calculated for the year 2013. However, in certain periods, MKTs in the South and Southeast deposits were near 25 °C, whereas variations in other regions were minimal (≤ 0.6 °C). The less precise estimate of representative temperatures in rural deposits, based on germination counts of B. bassiana and T. harzianum, were in the 23.8–35.4 and 24.0–27.5 °C ranges, respectively, depending on the geographical region. Our results indicate that guidelines that propose 30 °C to be adopted for stability tests for pharmaceutical and food products in tropical countries must also be applied to biopesticides intended for country-wide commercialization and storage under non-refrigerated conditions in Brazil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sulfatases are commonly divided into three classes: type I, type II, and type III sulfatases. The type III sulfatase, alkylsulfatase, could hydrolyze the primary alkyl sulfates, such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and sodium octyl sulfate. Thus, it has the potential application of SDS biodegradation. However, the roles of alkylsulfatase in biological control fungus remain unclear. In this study, an alkylsulfatase gene MaAts was identified from Metarhizium acridum. The deletion strain (ΔMaAts) and the complemented strain (CP) were constructed to reveal their functions in M. acridum. The activity of alkylsulfatase in ΔMaAts was dramatically reduced compared to the wild-type (WT) strain. The loss of MaAts delayed conidial germination, conidiation, and significantly declined the fungal tolerances to UV-B irradiation and heat-shock, while the fungal conidial yield and virulence were unaffected in M. acridum. The transcription levels of stress resistance-related genes were significantly changed after MaAts inactivation. Furthermore, digital gene expression profiling showed that 512 differential expression genes (DEGs), including 177 up-regulated genes and 335 down-regulated genes in ΔMaAts, were identified. Of these DEGs, some genes were involved in melanin synthesis, cell wall integrity, and tolerances to various stresses. These results indicate that MaAts and the DEGs involved in fungal stress tolerances may be candidate genes to be adopted to improve the stress tolerances of mycopesticides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past few decades, the control of pests and diseases of cultivated plants using natural and biological measures has drawn increasing attention in the quest to reduce the level of dependence on chemical products for agricultural production. The use of living organisms, predators, parasitoids, and microorganisms, such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi, has proven to be a viable and sustainable pest management technique. Among the aforementioned, fungi, most importantly the insect-pathogenic species, have been in use for more than 150years. These include the most popular strains belonging to the genera Beauveria, Metarhizium, Isaria, Hirsutella, and Lecanicillium. Their application is usually through an inundative approach, which inherently involves exposure of the fungal spores to unfavorable humidity, temperature, and solar radiation conditions. These abiotic factors reduce the persistence and efficacy of these insect-pathogenic fungi. Despite these limitations, over 170 strains have been formulated as mycopesticides and are available for commercial use. In the last few decades, numerous studies have suggested that these species of entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) offer far more benefits and have broader ecological functions than hitherto presumed. For instance, aside from their roles as insect killers, it has been well established that they also colonize various host plants and, hence, provide other benefits including plant pathogen antagonism and plant growth promotion and serve as sources of novel bioactive compounds and secondary metabolites, etc. In this light, the potential of EPF as alternatives or perhaps as supplements to chemical pesticides in plant protection is discussed in this review. The paper highlights the numerous benefits associated with endophytic fungal entomopathogen and host plant associations, the mechanisms involved in mediating plant defense against pests and pathogens, and the general limitations to the use of EPF in plant protection. A deeper understanding of these plant host-fungus-insect relationships could help unveil the hidden potentials of fungal endophytes, which would consequently increase the level of acceptance and adoption by users as an integral part of pest management programs and as a suitable alternative to chemical inputs toward sustainable crop production.

In the past few decades, the control of pests and diseases of cultivated plants using natural and biological measures has drawn increasing attention in the quest to reduce the level of dependence on chemical products for agricultural production. The use of living organisms, predators, parasitoids, and microorganisms, such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi, has proven to be a viable and sustainable pest management technique. Among the aforementioned, fungi, most importantly the insect-pathogenic species, have been in use for more than 150years. These include the most popular strains belonging to the genera Beauveria , Metarhizium , Isaria , Hirsutella , and Lecanicillium. Their application is usually through an inundative approach, which inherently involves exposure of the fungal spores to unfavorable humidity, temperature, and solar radiation conditions. These abiotic factors reduce the persistence and efficacy of these insect-pathogenic fungi. Despite these limitations, over 170 strains have been formulated as mycopesticides and are available for commercial use. In the last few decades, numerous studies have suggested that these species of entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) offer far more benefits and have broader ecological functions than hitherto presumed. For instance, aside from their roles as insect killers, it has been well established that they also colonize various host plants and, hence, provide other benefits including plant pathogen antagonism and plant growth promotion and serve as sources of novel bioactive compounds and secondary metabolites, etc. In this light, the potential of EPF as alternatives or perhaps as supplements to chemical pesticides in plant protection is discussed in this review. The paper highlights the numerous benefits associated with endophytic fungal entomopathogen and host plant associations, the mechanisms involved in mediating plant defense against pests and pathogens, and the general limitations to the use of EPF in plant protection. A deeper understanding of these plant host-fungus-insect relationships could help unveil the hidden potentials of fungal endophytes, which would consequently increase the level of acceptance and adoption by users as an integral part of pest management programs and as a suitable alternative to chemical inputs toward sustainable crop production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To describe a new approach in which production of conidia of an entomopathogenic fungus takes place on the surface of an unstirred shallow liquid culture kept in nonabsorbent wells distributed in plastic sheets resembling a honeycomb. Methods and Results: First, liquid incubation time and medium composition for production of Beauveria bassiana aerial conidia were optimized. Wells inoculated with Sabouraud dextrose yeast extract produced 2·2 × 108 conidia per cm2 of liquid surface following 5 days of incubation. Finally, tests were carried out in a prototype comprised of stacked plastic sheets in a cylindrical container. Conidia production on liquid culture surface varied from 1·2 to 1·6 × 109 conidia per ml of fermented broth. Germination rates and insect activity towards Tenebrio molitor larvae were not negatively affected when compared to conidia produced on solid medium. Conclusions: The two‐stage fermentation process here described, based on a simple nonabsorbent inert support, has potential for the application in the production of aerial conidia of B. bassiana and other fungi. Significance and Impact of the Study: Aerial conidia are the most extensive propagule type used in commercial mycopesticides, traditionally produced by solid‐state fermentation (SSF). The industrial applications and other important benefits of the two‐stage fermentation process here described may overcome some hurdles inherent to SSF aiming for the production of aerial conidia. Additionally, production consistency is increased by the use of chemically defined medium, and the better control of the environmental conditions could allow for more reproducible industrial batches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adoption rate of biopesticide worldwide has been increased because of the consumer´s growing level of awareness about the negative impact of the synthetic pesticides over the environment and the human health. Nonetheless, biopesticides today hold just 5% of the total crop protection market. This segment would increase with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 15-20% until 2020. Business analysts think that this growing will be guided by world regions such as Europe and Latin America driven by the new laws and the new resistant pests, respectively. The demand of this growing market requires a cost-efficient and reliable process of mass production, with good yield, and with a good quality product. Therefore, this article presents a critical review about technical points of the different kinds of fermentation systems, which are usually used in the production of microbial biopesticides with fungi as the active ingredient (mycoplaguicides). Also, it has a survey about the typical substrates used and the potential application of agroindustrial wastes as substrates. As well, a broad view is introduced about the mycopesticides production in Latin America and the Caribbean. Finally, the article shows future perspectives on research and development of mycopesticides production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Imbibition damage (ID) is a phenomenon characterized by the death of dehydrated conidia when immersed in water at temperatures ⩽ ca. 25 °C, as a result of the transition in the conformation of the plasma membrane in the presence of free water. In the present study we evaluated the susceptibility to ID of eight major species or varieties of fungi used in biological control programs in several countries ( Isaria farinosa , I. fumosorosea , I. javanica , Nomuraea rileyi , Pochonia chlamydosporia var. catenulata , P. chlamydosporia var. chlamydosporia , Purpureocillium lilacinum , and Trichoderma asperellum ). A commercial isolate of Metarhizium anisopliae sensu stricto, known to be sensitive to ID, was also included. Within all tested taxa, significant reductions in germination of dehydrated conidia after immersion in cold water (15 °C) compared to immersion in warm water (33–37 °C) were reported, due to delayed germination and/or ID. Additional tests with dehydrated M. anisopliae and T. asperellum conidia produced on different substrates revealed that susceptibility to ID was greatly impacted by vigor (% dehydrated conidia with rapid germination). Low mortality (1–7%) of dehydrated conidia immersed in cold water was observed when vigor was ⩾95%. Conversely, mortality was ⩾20% when vigor ranged from 50 to 90%. We hypothesize that, in vigorous dehydrated conidia, the cell wall is capable of slowing down water influx, allowing rehydration of the cell membrane by water vapors before contact with free water, thus mitigating ID. The marked effect of conidial quality on susceptibility of M. anisopliae and T. asperellum to ID highlights the need for production and post-production procedures (drying, harvesting, formulation and packaging) that ensure high vigor of conidia used as active ingredients in mycopesticides with low water contents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of inoculation method on efficacy of two formulations ofBeauveria bassianastrain GHA against Colorado potato beetle larvae were investigated. Under dry greenhouse conditions, ca. 58% mortality was observed among second-instar larvae exposed directly to sprays ofB. bassianaconidia, whereas mortality among larvae exposed to similarly treated foliage (either leaf dorsal or ventral surfaces) was <10%. Mortality was ca. 64% among larvae exposed to both direct sprays and foliar spray deposits. Equivalent rates of mortality were observed among larvae treated with a clay-based wettable powder versus an emulsifiable oil-based formulation ofB. bassianaconidia; however, this was observed despite application of an approximately 40% greater dose of WP-formulated conidia, indicating greater efficacy of the emulsifiable oil formulation. These results suggest that, under dry conditions, potato beetle larvae do not readily acquire an effective dose of conidia from treated foliage and that development of improved application technologies to more effectively target the larvae may ultimately prove more beneficial than development of formulations with greater foliar persistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A major constraint to the commercial use of fungal biocontrol agents is the availability of low-cost production media and processes. Previous attempts in producing Beauveria blastospores using liquid culture fermentation processes required long fermentation times (6–8 days) and produced cells that had poor survival after desiccation and storage. In this study, isolates of Beauveria bassiana and Isaria fumosorosea were evaluated for blastospore yield, desiccation tolerance, storage stability, and biocontrol efficacy using fermentation media containing acid hydrolyzed casein or cottonseed flour as the nitrogen source. Cultures of B. bassiana and I. fumosorosea grown in media containing cottonseed flour produced high blastospore concentrations (>1 × 10 9 mL −1 ) after 3 days which is comparatively less expensive nitrogen source than acid hydrolyzed casein . The resultant air-dried blastospores (<3% moisture) of all fungal isolates survived drying (61–86% viability), irrespective of the nitrogen source tested. Storage stability at 4 °C varied with nitrogen source and fungal strain. Air-dried blastospores of B. bassiana strains showed half-lives >14 months in contrast to 9.2–13.1 months for I. fumosorosea. Blastospores of B. bassiana and I. fumosorosea killed Bemisia tabaci whitefly nymphs faster and required lower concentrations compared with aerial conidia. Our findings support the use of liquid culture fermentation as a cost-effective process to rapidly produce high yields of stable and infective blastospores of either B. bassiana or I. fumosorosea . These results support further evaluation of blastospore sprayable formulations for the control of soft-bodied insects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The substantial negative impact of some parameters on the germination of low-quality conidia (high proportion of slow-germinating propagules) was demonstrated, whereas for high-quality batches their effect was small or even absent. Germination was increased as the initial hydration status of conidia immediately prior to suspension preparation was increased, being ca. 33% and 80% for dehydrated Metarhizium anisopliae propagules (water activity ⩽0.314) from low- or high-quality batches after an 18h incubation period, respectively, and 63% and 95% for hydrated propagules (water activity=0.933). Germination of low-quality propagules also increased as the time dry conidia were kept in aqueous suspension prior to inoculation onto culture media (15min, 3 or 24h) or the incubation time at 25°C before counts (18, 48 or 72h) was increased. Depending on treatment conditions, average germination of low-quality conidia varied from 53% to 98%. On the other hand, germination for high-quality conidia was always ⩾94%. Regarding the relative humidity (RH) of the incubation atmosphere, the average germination rates for low-quality conidia on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) in Petri plates was 49%, while germination of these conidia on PDA blocks kept under lower RH inside plastic boxes was ⩽23%. Use of lactophenol-staining and/or use of coverslips had a negative effect when germination assessment was performed for low-quality conidia, resulting in distorted counts or increased standard deviations compared to high-quality conidial batches. The occurrence of dislodged conidia (ungerminated conidia outside the inoculation zone due to hydraulic pressure exercised by addition of stains and/or coverslips added to the substrate by the time germination is assessed) was common place, whereas dislodged conidia were not seen in treatments with high-quality batches. This work underscores the importance of a number of parameters that anyone working with low-quality fungi needs to be cognizant of in their research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Germination of Beauveria bassiana (Bb) and Metarhizium anisopliae (Ma) conidia determined from a fast-rehydration (FR) protocol were compared to those obtained when dry conidia were subjected to slow rehydration (SR) by holding under high humidity conditions prior to aqueous suspension. Differences in viability estimates obtained using the FR vs. SR protocols increased markedly after conidia were exposed to various stress factors in storage (high aw , temperature, and O2 concentrations), with the SR protocol producing higher estimates of viability in all cases. After Bb conidia were stored under moist conditions for 21days at 25°C, the SR estimate of viability was >21% greater than the FR estimate. In jars flushed with different O2 concentrations and stored at 50°C for 34days, proportional differences between protocols varied, depending on water activity, from 18–44% in jars flushed with 0% O2 (100% N2) to as high as 63–93% when treated with 21–22% O2. For conidia stored over a broad range of moderate to high temperatures in the absence of O2, SR–FR differences were ⩽9% at 25–40°C but 30% at 50°C. Germination of stressed Bb and Ma conidia increased substantially when incubation time on the germination substrate was increased from 24 to 72h, whereas germination of non-stressed conidia showed little change. Conidia debilitated by stress were characterized by hypersensitivity to lethal imbibitional damage (damage that is mitigated by slow rehydration) and slow germination. Viability protocols that may provide more reliable assessments of overall mycopesticide quality are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brazil and China have been successful in the use of microbial control methods to manage several agricultural and forest insects. In both countries, entomopathogenic fungi (EF) have been used for pest management since the 1970s. However, EF production and commercialization have not been constant in either country. Several companies and cooperatives suspended their activities or shut down from the 1970s to the 1990s. This was due to loss of confidence in available mycoinsecticides by Brazilian farmers or due to reduced involvement and government subsidies for biological control in China; and, consequently, mycoinsecticides were largely replaced by inexpensive chemical insecticides. Starting in the 1990s and continuing until today, however, new Brazilian and Chinese private companies have arisen. In Brazil, the area treated with M. anisopliae for spittlebug control alone is estimated to be approximately one million hectares in 2008, 75% of which was for control of spittlebugs in sugarcane plantations and the remainder for spittlebugs in pasture grass (primarily Brachiaria spp.) and other smaller programs. In China, the fungus Beauveria bassiana was used annually in 0.8-1.3 million ha until the 1980s. Several factors were important for the success of these programs, such as: governmental support (at least during the initial steps of biocontrol programs); availability of indigenous virulent fungal isolates; low-cost substrates for mass production; retail prices of mycoinsecticides lower than their chemical counterparts; and sale by contract which allows the products to be immediately available for use, rather than stored. In this report, we discuss the current biocontrol programs using insect fungi in these two developing countries, as well as the future and main challenges they must face to further encourage the adoption of mycoinsecticides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A substantial number of mycoinsecticides and mycoacaricides have been developed worldwide since the 1960s. Here we present an updated, comprehensive list of these products. At least 12 species or subspecies (varieties) of fungi have been employed as active ingredients of mycoinsecticides and mycoacaricides for inundative and inoculative applications, although some are no longer in use. Products based on Beauveria bassiana (33.9%), Metarhizium anisopliae (33.9%), Isaria fumosorosea (5.8%), and B. brongniartii (4.1%) are the most common among the 171 products presented in this paper. Approximately 75% of all listed products are currently registered, undergoing registration or commercially available (in some cases without registration), whereas 15% are no longer available. We were unable to determine the status of the remaining 10%. Insects in the orders Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Thysanoptera, and Orthoptera comprise most of the targets, distributed among at least 48 families. A total of 28 products are claimed to control acarines (mites and ticks) in at least 4 families, although only three products (all based on Hirsutella thompsonii) were exclusively developed as acaricides. Eleven different technical grade active ingredients or formulation types have been identified, with technical concentrates (fungus-colonized substrates) (26.3%), wettable powders (20.5%) and oil dispersions (15.2%) being most common. Approximately 43% of all products were developed by South American companies and institutions. Currently, what may be the largest single microbial control program using fungi involves the use of M. anisopliae for control of spittlebugs (Cercopidae) in South American sugarcane and pastures. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Pest insects can cause losses of up to 70% in agricultural productivity. • Mycopesticides are an efficient future alternative in the control of insect pests. • Trichoderma reports effectiveness in the control of insect pests of up to 100%. • Trichoderma controls insect pest through direct and indirect mechanisms of action. Insects are the main pest in agricultural systems, causing significant losses in crop productivity and storage. During the last decades the control of pest insects has been carried out through the uncontrolled and massive use of chemical insecticides, very harmful to the environment and health, which requires the development of new efficient and safe alternatives. Numerous fungal species have been described as entomopathogens of insect pests, as well as plant endophytic fungi. In this sense, Trichoderma is a genus of filamentous fungi widely studied and used as a biocontrol agent in agriculture on pathogenic fungi due to its ability to parasitize them (mycoparasitism), among other mechanisms of action. In recent years, the possibility of using Trichoderma as a biocontrol agent for insect pest has been considered, both directly and indirectly. The studies carried out to date have reported that Trichoderma is capable of controlling insect pest directly through parasitism and the production of insecticidal secondary metabolites, antifeedant compounds and repellent metabolites. And indirectly through the activation of systemic plant defensive responses, the attraction of natural enemies or the parasitism of insect-symbiotic microorganisms. Therefore, the use of Trichoderma in agriculture is not only effective against plant pathogens, but also against insect pests, representing a future alternative in the development of sustainable agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As key players in biotic stress response of plants, jasmonic acid (JA) and its derivatives cover a specific and prominent role in pathogens-mediated signaling and hence are promising candidates for a sustainable management of phytopathogenic fungi. Recently, JA directed antimicrobial effects on plant pathogens has been suggested, supporting the theory of oxylipins as double gamers in plant-pathogen interaction. Based on these premises, six derivatives (dihydrojasmone and cis-jasmone, two thiosemicarbazonic derivatives and their corresponding complexes with copper) have been evaluated against 13 fungal species affecting various economically important herbaceous and woody crops, such as cereals, grapes and horticultural crops: Phaeoacremonium minimum, Neofusicoccum parvum, Phaeomoniella chlamydospora, Fomitiporia mediterranea, Fusarium poae, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum f. sp. lactucae,F. sporotrichioides, Aspergillus flavus, Rhizoctonia solani,Sclerotinia spp. and Verticillium dahliae. The biological activity of these compounds was assessed in terms of growth inhibition and, for the two mycotoxigenic species A. flavus and F. sporotrichioides, also in terms of toxin containment. As expected, the inhibitory effect of molecules greatly varied amongst both genera and species; cis-jasmone thiosemicarbazone in particular has shown the wider range of effectiveness. However, our results show that thiosemicarbazones derivatives are more effective than the parent ketones in limiting fungal growth and mycotoxins production, supporting possible applications for the control of pathogenic fungi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Numerous countries have developed politics to reduce pesticide use. • Mycopesticides use several modes of action to reduce plant diseases. • Physiological state of the active agent is a key factor for product stability. • Biopesticide registration complexity delays mycopesticide development. Phytosanitary crop protection products have shown their impact on the environment. They may not be very selective and their excessive use in agriculture causes pollution of soil and groundwater, destruction of many beneficial insects and the emergence of resistant pests. Hence there is strong public and political pressure driven by consumers to implement phytosanitary alternatives that are less aggressive to the environment, such of biopesticides. Biopesticides and, in particular, mycopesticides are frequently used as an environmentally friendly tools to reduce plant diseases by inhibiting the growth of pathogens and inducing resistance in plants. In this review, we will first analyze the current evolution of the global market of biopesticides. Boosted by different political initiatives all over the world, this market has increased 6-fold between 2005 and 2016. In 2016, it represented 6% of the global pesticide market with a compound annual growth rate (CGAR) of 14.1%. The mycopesticides accounted for only 10% of the global biopesticide market of 2016. We then focused on two main factors which should contribute to the future development of mycopesticides: the large panel of their modes of action and the physiological state of the active product. Indeed, several modes of action could, in some instances, increase the efficacy of a biopesticide and postpone the emergence of resistance mechanism. The broad set of mechanisms use by Trichoderma harzianum and T. atroviride to reduce plant diseases: nutrient competition, direct antagonism, mycoparasitism and induction of resistance mechanism in plants were developed as an example. Stability of the active substance is another essential factor for creating competitive mycopesticides. For this, the choice of propagule types could be a major factor in enhancing their stability. This choice was discussed highlighting the advantages of conidia or sporidia from solid-state fermentation. To end with, the registration process in European Union was described revealing another limiting factor that delays the development of mycopesticides in this zone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]