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U ovom radu analizira se institut zajma (mutuum) i zajmovnih poslova u rimskoj pravnoj tradiciji s osvrtom na današnje uređenje zajma u suvremenom, hrvatskom pravu. Zajam (mutuum) je ugovor čiji su temelji postavljeni već u rimskom pravu te se razvijao od moralne (naturalne), neutužive obveze pa sve do pravno uređenog instituta s odgovarajućom pravnom zaštitom. Glavne karakteristike zajma u rimskoj pravnoj tradiciji su realnost, jednostranoobvezujući učinak, obveza stricti iuris te mogućnost ugovaranja kamata s propisanim ograničenjima. Pored toga u radu se analiziraju i neka posebna pitanja vezana uz razvoj ugovora mutuum u rimskom pravu (npr. Senatus consultum Macedonianum) te pomorski zajam (fenus nauticum) kao posebna vrsta zajma uz sve njegove posebnosti. Nadalje se posebna pažnja posvećuje stipulaciji i ekspensilaciji kao ugovorima koji su uz svoju opću ulogu u rimskom pravnom sustavu imali i posebnu relevantnost kao zajmovni poslovi, odnosno ugovori koji su se često sklapali uz realni mutuum ili umjesto njega. Zajam u suvremenom hrvatskom pravu u dobroj mjeri odgovara ugovoru mutuum iz rimske pravne tradicije, uz bitnu razliku što je uređen kao konsenzualni a ne realni ugovor. Nadalje, u radu se iscrpnije analizira predmet suvremenog ugovora o zajmu, obveze ugovornih stranaka, vrste zajma, kamate s propisanim ograničenjima, zelenaški ugovor o zajmu (što je ujedno i kazneno djelo) te ugovor o kreditu kao inačica ugovora o zajmu te naposljetku sličnosti i razlike između tih ugovora., This paper analyzes the institute of loan (mutuum) and related contracts in Roman legal tradition, with a focus on the current regulation of loan in contemporary Croatian law. Loan (mutuum) is a contract with foundations which were established in Roman law and which developed from a moral (natural), unenforceable obligation to a legally regulated institute with corresponding legal protection. The main characteristics of loan (mutuum) in Roman legal tradition are that it is a contract re (obligation arose from an object delivered), unilateral binding effect, stricti iuris obligation, and the possibility of agreeing on interest rates with prescribed limitations. Additionally, the paper deals with certain particular questions associated with the development of the contract of mutuum in Roman law (for example the Senatus consultum Macedonianum) and the maritime loan (fenus nauticum) with all its specificities. Furthermore, the text particularly analyses the contracts of stipulatio and expensilatio as contracts related to mutuum, since they were often concluded alongside or instead of a loan. Loan in contemporary Croatian law corresponds in greater part to mutuum from Roman legal tradition, with an important distinction that it is conceived as a consensual contract. The text further deals with the objects of contemporary loan, obligations of the contracting parties, types of loan, interest rates with prescribed limitations, usurious loan agreements (which are also a criminal offense), and the credit agreement as a variation of the loan agreement, as well as the similarities and differences between these contracts.

espanolPlantear la cuestion de la posibilidad de olvidar una deuda, modificando o incluso eliminando asi el vinculo entre acreedor y deudor, lleva a presentar el credito medieval en su especificidad. Este analisis, basado en el analisis de series notariales y judiciales, contempla los aspectos estructurales de la economia financiera, subrayando asi las caracteristicas especificas de la economia del Occidente medieval (siglos XII-XV). La deuda –el punto de vista del deudor –se enfrenta a su cara, el credito– el punto de vista del prestamista. La contraposicion entre dos ambitos distintos, el de la generosidad y el del prestamo a interes, que aspiraria a obtener beneficios, no resulta ser binaria, como tampoco el feudalismo excluye las practicas del capitalismo. Antes de ser un mecanismo economico, el credito es un sistema social que crea vinculos mediante una gestion que juega con la tension estructurante entre la memoria y el olvido EnglishAsking the question of the possibility of forgetting a debt, modifying or even erasing the bond between creditor and debtor, leads to presenting medieval credit in its specificity. This analysis, based on the analysis of notarial and judicial series, considers the structural aspects of the financial economy, thus emphasizing the characteristics specific to the economy of the medieval West (12th-15th Centuries). The debt–the debtor’s point of view–is confronted with its debt, the debt–the lender’s point of view. The opposition between two distinct spheres, that of generosities and that of the interest loan, which would aim to obtain profits, proves not to be binary, just as feudalism does not exclude practices falling under capitalism. Before being an economic mechanism, credit is a social system that creates links through management that plays the structuring tension between memory and forgetfulness. francaisPoser la question de la possibilite d’oublier une dette, modifiant, voire effacant ainsi le lien entre creancier et debiteur, conduit a presenter le credit medieval dans sa specificite. Cette analyse appuyee sur l’examen de series notariales et judiciaires envisage les aspects structurels de l’economie financiere, soulignant ainsi les caracteres specifiques a l’economie de l’Occident medieval (XIIe-XVe siecles). La dette – le point de vue du debiteur – est confrontee a son envers, la creance – le point de vue du preteur. L’opposition entre deux domaines distincts, celui des generosites et celui du pret a interet qui viserait a obtenir des benefices, se revele ne pas etre binaire, tout comme le feodalisme n’exclut pas des pratiques relevant du capitalisme. Avant d’etre un mecanisme economique, le credit est un systeme social qui cree du lien par une gestion, qui joue de la tension structurante entre memoire et oubli. DeutschDie Frage nach der Moglichkeit, eine Schuld zu vergessen, wodurch die Verbindung zwischen Glaubiger und Schuldner verandert oder sogar aufgehoben wird, fuhrt dazu, dass der mittelalterliche Kredit in seiner Spezifitat dargestellt wird. Diese Analyse stutzt sich auf die Analyse notarieller und gerichtlicher Reihen uber die strukturellen Aspekte der Finanzwirtschaft und unterstreicht damit die Besonderheiten der Wirtschaft des mittelalterlichen Westens (13. bis 15. Jahrhundert). Die Schuld – Sicht des Schuldners ist gegen ihn gerichtet, die Forderung gegen den Kreditgeber. Der Gegensatz zwischen zwei verschiedenen Bereichen, dem Bereich der Allgemeinheit und dem Bereich des Zinsdarlehens, der auf die Erzielung von Gewinnen abzielt, erweist sich als nicht binar, ebenso wenig wie der Feudalismus kapitalistische Praktiken ausschliest. B Bevor es sich um einen wirtschaftlichen Mechanismus handelt, ist Kredit ein soziales System, das durch ein Management, das die strukturierende Spannung zwischen Gedachtnis und Vergessen ausnutzt, eine Verbindung schafft.

Whereas literature on Thomas Aquinas's doctrine of usury has tended to focus on the Summa Theologiae, this paper highlights the contribution of his early work the Commentary on the Sentences. In this work, Aquinas distances himself from the Roman law mutuum and the assumption of a borrower's state of necessity, and he introduces preliminary monetary elements. He thereby paves the way for a future understanding of surplus in intertemporal exchange. The monetary loan is presented as a commercial exchange involving not only commercial risk but also the risk of analytical errors in understanding the nature of the operation.; Tandis que la littérature sur la doctrine de Thomas d'Aquin sur l’usure se concentre habituellement sur la Somme de théologie, cet article met en lumière l’apport de son œuvre de jeunesse, le Commentaire des Sentences. L’Aquinate prend ses distances avec le mutuum du droit romain et avec la considération d’un état de nécessité de l’emprunteur, et il introduit de premiers éléments monétaires. Il ouvre à la voie à une future compréhension d’un surplus dans un échange intertemporel. Le prêt se présente comme un échange commercial impliquant non seulement des risques commerciaux, mais aussi le risque d’une erreur d’analyse dans la compréhension de la nature de l’opération.

Whereas literature on Thomas Aquinas's doctrine of usury has tended to focus on the Summa Theologiae, this paper highlights the contribution of his early work the Commentary on the Sentences. In this work, Aquinas distances himself from the Roman law mutuum and the assumption of a borrower's state of necessity, and he introduces preliminary monetary elements. He thereby paves the way for a future understanding of surplus in intertemporal exchange. The monetary loan is presented as a commercial exchange involving not only commercial risk but also the risk of analytical errors in understanding the nature of the operation., Tandis que la littérature sur la doctrine de Thomas d'Aquin sur l’usure se concentre habituellement sur la Somme de théologie, cet article met en lumière l’apport de son œuvre de jeunesse, le Commentaire des Sentences. L’Aquinate prend ses distances avec le mutuum du droit romain et avec la considération d’un état de nécessité de l’emprunteur, et il introduit de premiers éléments monétaires. Il ouvre à la voie à une future compréhension d’un surplus dans un échange intertemporel. Le prêt se présente comme un échange commercial impliquant non seulement des risques commerciaux, mais aussi le risque d’une erreur d’analyse dans la compréhension de la nature de l’opération.

Resumen A diferencia de las Instituciones de Gayo, en las que la mutui datio aparece solitaria, como único supuesto de obligatio re contracta (Gai. 3,90), las res cottidianae agregan inmediatamente después de la explicación de esta figura (D. 44,7,1,2) la obligaciones contraídas, respectivamente, por el comodatario, el depositario y el acreedor pignoraticio, mediante el uso de las expresiones genéricas re obligatur y re tenetur (D. 44,7,1,3-6). Con todo, la expresión técnica re contrahitur obligatio permanece en esta obra reservada al mutuo. Lo anterior ha motivado la communis opinio según la cual este texto sería el punto de partida de la categoría de los contratos reales de la tradición romanística hasta nuestros días, es decir, compuesta por mutuo, comodato, depósito y prenda. Sin embargo, a nuestro juicio, en las res cottidianae, lejos de establecerse una nueva noción del re contrahere, lo que se hace es confirmar su estructura clásica, restringida al mutuo, y el acercamiento que se verifica entre el mutuum, por una parte, y el commodatum, el depositum y el pignus, por la otra, obedece más bien a la necesidad práctica de constarar que, desde una perspectiva procesal, la obligación de reddere del comodatario, el depositario y el acreedor pignoraticio, se hace valer por medio de acciones honorarias estrictamente restitutorias construidas según el modelo de la condictio que el mutuante ejerce contra el mutuario. Luego, estos cuatro negocios se vinculan no en cuanto obligationes re contractae, sino que en cuanto causae credendi. Abstract Unlike the Institutes of Gaius, in which mutui datio stands alone, as the only assumption of obligatio re contracta (Gai. 3,90), the res cottidianae, right after the explanation of this leading legal aspect (D. 44,7,1,2), add the obligations undertaken by the bailee, custodian and the pledgee respectively, by using the generic terms re obligatur and re tenetur (D. 44,7,1,3-6). Nonetheless, the technical term re contrahitur obligatio refers, in this work, to the mutuum. This has encouraged the communis opinio, by which this writing is the starting point for the real contracts category from the Romanistic tradition up to the present day, that is, composed of mutuum, bailment, deposit and lien. However, we believe that in res cottidianae, far from establishing a new concept of re contrahere, it instead confirms its classical structure, restricted to the mutuum and the approach that is verified between the mutuum, on one hand, and the commodatum, depositum and pignus, on the other hand. This is rather driven by the practical need to prove that, from a procedural perspective, the obligation of the bailee, depository and pledgee to reddere is availed through strictly restorative honorary actions, built on the basis of the condictio model that the lender applies against the borrower. Then, these four business activities are linked on the basis of the causae credenda and not on obligations re contractae.

Resumen: En sus Institutiones, Gayo presenta una cuatripartición de las obligationes ex contractu, según la cual éstas pueden nacer re, verbis, litteris o consensu (Gai. 3,89). Al explicar en qué consiste la obligatio re contracta, Gayo se refiere única y exclusivamente a la mutui datio (Gai. 3,90), para luego dudar del carácter contractual (no así del real) de la solutio indebiti (Gai. 3,91), constituyendo ésta, por así decirlo, una obligación real extracontractual. En efecto, no encontramos en el manual gayano referencia alguna a otros supuestos de re contrahere distintos del mutuo. Esta noción de obligatio re contracta concuerda plenamente con otras fuentes de época clásica, ya que para la jurisprudencia romana se contrahe re una obligación específicamente por medio de la transferencia de dominio (datio rei) de cosas fungibles, pudiendo exigirse la restitución del valor económico de las mismas (quanti ea res est) a través de la condictio, una acción de estricto derecho. Sin embargo, esta situación contrasta con la tradición romanística posterior, que desarrolló una categoría de los contratos reales (contractus re) compuesta por el mutuo, el comodato, el depósito y la prenda, es decir, extendida a figuras que no suponen una transferencia de dominio. Abstract: The Institutiones by Gaius sets forth four orders of obligationes ex contractu, according to which these may be concluded by re, verbis, litteris o consensu (Gai. 3,89). When explaining obligatio re contracta, Gaio solely refers to the mutui datio (Gai. 3,90), and then he hesitates whether solutio indebiti (Gai. 3,91) is (unlike the real one) of a contractual nature, which becomes, so to speak, a non-contractual real obligation. In point of fact, Gaius work has no references of other assumptions of re contrahere, apart from the mutuum. The obligatio re contracta notion is fully consistent with other sources of the classical period, since obligation in Roman law is specifically contrahe re by delivery of fungible goods (datio rei), where the restitution of the economic value of those (quanti ea res est) may be enforced by way of condictio, which is a strict legal action. Nonetheless, this situation contrasts with the subsequent Roman traditions, which developed a category of real contracts (contractus re) made up by the mutuum, commodatum, deposit and the pledge that reaches legal concepts that do not entail the delivery of the goods.

"Peregrini and Legal Practice in Roman Law in Campania : about TPSulp. 78". The value of collections of documents grounded in practice is well known. These primary sources are little used, by legal historians in their reconstruction of legal phenomena owing to difficulties of interpretation and the high quantity of “ informational complexity” presented by this type of text, even though they constitute precious sources and firsthand testimonies of the law as it was concretely applied in everyday affairs. A privileged position is certainly occupied by the recent critical edition by G. Camodeca of the tabulae ceratae from Pompeii and Herculaneum. The Pompeian tablets, in particular, consist of the archive of ex slaves, the rich freedmen Caii Sulpicci, businessmen and bankers, with ties to the major patrician house of the Sulpicii Galbae. The study of these texts has made it posible to reconstitute the way numerous legal acts and tractations were drawn, as suggested by the legal sources, among which the loan that comes up in the examination of TPSulp. 78, a bilingual document, characterized by the coexistence of elements specific to Roman law and Greek-Hellenistic law, allowing for the legal protection of both parties, considering that in the case of contracts such as loans, practices notoriously differ., Notissimo è il valore delle raccolte di documenti provenienti dalla prassi. Queste fonti di prima mano, in particolare, sono poco utilizzate dagli storici del diritto nella ricostruzione dei fenomeni giuridici, a causa delle difficoltà esegetiche e l’elevato grado di ‘complessità informativa’ che un tal tipo di testo presenta, pur essendo siffatte fonti preziose ed immediate testimoni del diritto effettivamente applicato negli affari quotidiani. In posizione privilegiata è sicuramente la recente edizione critica di tabulae ceratae provenienti da Pompei ed Ercolano curate da G. Camodeca. Le tavolette pompeiane, in particolare, costituiscono l’archivio di ex schiavi, i ricchi liberti Caii Sulpicii, uomini d’affari e banchieri, legati alla grande casata patrizia dei Sulpicii Galbae. La lettura di questi testi ha permesso di ricostruire il formulario di numerosi atti e negozi, che le fonti giuridiche lasciavano intendere, tra cui il mutuo che viene in rilievo nell’esame di TPSulp. 78, chirografo bilingue, caratterizzato dalla coesistenza di elementi propri del diritto romano e del diritto greco-ellenistico, idonei a consentire la tutela giurisdizionale dei contraenti in ciascun ordinamento, in considerazione del fatto che con riferimento al tipo contruattale del mutuo, come è noto le preassi giuridiche divergono., Bramante Maria Vittoria. La partecipazione degli stranieri al quotidiano vivere giuridico nei documenti della prassi campana : a proposito di TPSulp. 78. In: Lo viejo y lo nuevo en las sociedades antiguas: homenaje a Alberto Prieto.

It is generally accepted that an abstract system for the transfer of property is applied in South Africa. Characteristic of an abstract system is that the different legal acts which form part of the process, namely the obligatory agreement, delivery of the thing concerned or registration and the real agreement are separated from each other. The real agreement is an agreement between the transferor and the transferee based on a meeting of the minds; it is directed at the transfer of ownership by delivery and should be distinguished from the underlying causa (for example an obligatory agreement). The real agreement merely consists of the transferor’s intention to transfer property and the transferee’s intention to receive property. A second characteristic of the real agreement is that it should meet its own requirements. It is therefore not dependent on the validity of the preceding obligation or any other legal act. This means that ownership will pass from the transferor to the transferee even though the underlying obligatory agreement is invalid. The real agreement is an invention of the German jurist Friedrich Carl von Savigny. The purpose with this article is to ascertain whether or not Roman law at the time of Justinian reflects any of the characteristics of an abstract system and the real agreement (which is generally associated with an abstract system). Can it be said that Savigny based his theory on Roman law? It appears from this paper that a clear distinction was drawn in Roman law between the causa (obligatory agreement) and delivery (traditio). Ownership in movable and immovable property did not pass directly by virtue of the conclusion of the contract of sale or donation (causa) - the thing concerned had to be delivered to the transferee in a legally accepted way as well. Although there is no clarity regarding the question of whether or not a valid causa was a requirement for the transfer of ownership, it can be stated with a fair amount of certainty that the causa had to be valid in those cases where delivery was effected by virtue of sale and donation. If the causa was invalid, ownership did not pass, even though the parties had the intention to pass ownership. In this regard Roman law at the time of Justinian reflects the characteristics of a causal system. However, if the thing was delivered on account of a dos or solutio by virtue of a stipulatio (and maybe also mutuum), there was no prior obligatory agreement and traditio was not affected by the causa at all. Ownership had passed merely by virtue of the intention to transfer and to receive ownership. In other words, Roman law portrays characteristics of an abstract system in these situations. Regarding the question whether or not the reciprocal intention to transfer and to receive ownership had been construed as an independent agreement which should be distinguished from the obligatory agreement, it appears that that was not the case. Because of the dual nature of the contract of sale in Roman law (it created an obligation but it was also iusta causa traditionis), it was accepted that the intention to transfer and to receive ownership was actually contained in the obligatory agreement. It did not exist on its own as a separate agreement (except in cases of a dos, solutio and mutuum). However, it emerges that the intention was emphasised more and more and that it was gradually loosened from the causa. The loosening, however, existed merely in the vision that the intention to pass ownership (as contained in the causa) can continue to exist on its own even though the causa appears to be invalid. The bond between causa and traditio was not yet finally broken, because it was still the intention at the time of the obligatory agreement that effected the passing of ownership. The conclusion is that there was no sign of a real agreement which merely consisted of the reciprocal intention to transfer and receive ownership and which existed independently from the underlying obligatory agreement.